Hippocratic Approach to Epilepsy; Natural Theory and Practice Essay Example

Hippocratic Approach to Epilepsy; Natural Theory and Practice Essay The birth of the Hippocratic medicine marked a transition from ritual and folk healing to a profession of secular theory and practice. Epilepsy, with its common occurrence, dramatic presentation, and hidden cause attracted the attention of many healers in the ancient world and was the primary subject of full Hippocratic medical treatise written in fourth century BC. This work known as Sacred Disease was the first emphatic argument for a naturalistic understanding and treatment of epilepsy and made advances that would not be surpassed for two thousand years. Galen one of the most well known and prolific physicians who practiced in Rome in the second century A. D. modeled himself after the Hippocratic ideal physician. This ideal can be conceptualized as a physician healed the sick through skilled practice by applying diligent trial and error and logic, and also was a learned natural philosopher who could defend his actions by knowledge of nature and an understanding of the human body. The advances of Greco-Roman medicine in understanding and treating epileptic disorders found in the Sacred Disease can provide an example how an idealized Hippocratic physician should approach medicine with skilled practice arising from carefully deduced and deafened natural theory. Hippocrates of Kos (cir. 460 BC-380 BC) was an ancient Greek physician is often called the father of medicine, and is know for writings an collection of writings of his name the Corpus Hippocraticum. We will write a custom essay sample on Hippocratic Approach to Epilepsy; Natural Theory and Practice specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Hippocratic Approach to Epilepsy; Natural Theory and Practice specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Hippocratic Approach to Epilepsy; Natural Theory and Practice specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The corpus was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity, and its teaching followed principles of professionalism, natural theory, and rigorous practice of applying general diagnoses and passive treatment which was aimed to aid nature in restoring the sick to health. Hippocrates argued that diseases were caused by natural process within the body and not as a result of supernatural action or Gods and his natural philosophy and treatment approaches were emulated and idealized for centuries later. The principle of naturalistic causes of disease and relying on natural philosophy was forcibly forwarded in the treatise Sacred Disease which described the Hippocratic approach to epilepsy. The title, Sacred Disease , is counter to the authors premise that epilepsy was in no way a sacred disease, but was simply a disorder of natural origin like other diseases. The writing opens with the assertion: I do not believe that the Sacred Disease is any more divine or sacred then any other disease but, on the contrary has specific characteristics and a definite cause. Nevertheless, because it is completely different from other disease, it has been regarded as a divine visitation by those who, being only human, view it with ignorance and astonishment. 1 This strict application of science or natural philosophy toward the understanding of disease is present throughout the Hippocratic writings and is clearly stated in other treatise Tradition in Medicine Medicine has long possessed the qualities necessary to make a science. These are a starting point and a known method according to which many valuable discoveries have been made over a long period of time. By such method, too, the rest of the science will be discovered if anyone who is clever enough is versed in the observations of the past and makes these the starting point of his researches. If anyone should reject these and, casting them aside, endeavor to proceed by a new method and then assert that that he has made a discovery, he has been and is being deceived. 2 Basing the origin of disease on a understanding of the observable world as opposed to gods or spiritual possession made use of unyielding aspect of a natural philosophy and the idealized Hippocratic physician. This is because Galens view of an ideal physician would be a practitioner that would apply scientific understanding to all processes and not set aside when dealing with hidden or poorly understood processes. Stating that epilepsy has a definite and natural cause is not the end of the argument for Hippocratic author of the Sacred Disease, he also addresses the counter argument that it is supernatural. The author explains the flaws the supernatural explanations and ritualistic cures for epilepsy in the ancient Greek world. The author does by using important faculty of sound logic and a desire to inform the common man inherent in the idealized Hippocratic physician. The Greek supernatural understanding of epilepsy assumed that different deities aspects were responsible forms and symptom’s. 3 The author disputes this with logic based argument that the gods would not pollute themselves with possession of the human body. 6 The author of the Treatise also makes the makes logical assertion about the purification rituals and it practitioners: If the disease can be cured by purification and similar treatments then what is to prevent its being brought on by like devises? The man who can get rid of a disease by his magic could equally well bring it on; again there is nothing divine about this but a human element is involved. 4 By countering the supernatural assumptions regarding the causes of epilepsy that were prevalent during the authors time the he provided an example of how to defend a naturalistic theory that could be a logical alternative to supernatural explanations. With limited technology and taboos regarding posthumous forensic techniques on humans the Hippocratic author had an sophisticated understanding of the natural causes of epilepsy. The author of the Sacred Disease made two very important derived assertions that epilepsy is heritable, that epilepsy is brain disorder, and the symptoms are influenced by the environment. The author uses these observations to describe the naturalistic explanations of the disease which is another quality of the idealized Hippocratic physicians because he must defend his actions and understanding based on observations of the natural world. The Hippocratic author explanations his theory of heredity as, â€Å"The seed comes from all parts of the body; it is healthy when it comes from healthy parts, diseased when it comes from and diseased parts. †5 The author when on to make a final deductive argument for heritability and against the supernatural origin of epilepsy by writing: Another important proof that this disease is no more divine then any other lies in the fact that the phlegmatic are constitutionally liable for it while bilious escape. If its origin were divine, all types were be affected without this particular distinction. 6 The Hippocratic author of the The Sacred Disease made the revolutionary determination that epilepsy was a result of a brain disorder, and began his detailed theory on the origin of epilepsy by, â€Å" , the brain is the seat of this disease, as it is of many other very violent diseases. I shall explain clearly the manner in which it comes about and the reasons for it. †7 The author then includes what was know at the time regarding brain anatomy and physiology including a discussion of the neural membrane surrounding the brain, the fluid filled cavities, and blood supply, during which he made another innovative assertion that headaches are somehow related to the blood supply to the neural membranes. 7 The author also linked the natural origin of epilepsy to disruptions of the flow of of essential air through the blood vessels be the execration of excess phlegm by the brain. 8 For the author the root cause occurs before childbirth: Its [epilepsy] inception is even while the child is still within its mothers womb, for the brain is rid of undesirable matter and brought to full development, like the other parts, before birth if this â€Å"cleansing† doesnt not take place but the material is retained in the brain, a phlegmatic constitution is bound to result. This explanation of epilepsy was based on the Hippocratic understanding of Humorism in that the human body was filled with the four fluids of yellow bile, black bile, phlegm, and blood that are in balance when a person is healthy and diseases resulted from an excess or deficit of one of these four humors. The author explains how an excesses of phlegm causes the various symptoms of epilepsy: Should these routes for the passage of phlegm from the brain be blocked, the discharges enters the blood-vessels which I have described. This causes loss of voice, chocking, foaming at the mouth, clenching of the teeth, and convulsions movements of the hands; the eyes are fixed, the patient becomes unconscious and, in some cases passes stool. 9 The author defends and grounds his theory not only with the prevailing understanding of humoral medicine of ancient Greece but also in sound observations and logical deductions. The most complex example of this is the authors examination of epileptic goats and the relation to humans. The author describes his finds as: This observation results specially from the study of animals, particularly goats which are liable to this disease If you cut open the head you will find the brain is wet, full of fluid and foul-smelling, convincing proof that disease and not deity is harming the body. It is just the same with man, for when the malady becomes chronic it is incurable. The brain is dissolved by phlegm and liquifies; the melted substance thus formed turns to water 247 The author suggests how epilepsy is related to the weather and winds and may effect the severity or unset of epileptic due to changes of temperature and moisture. He also explains that winds from the South that often carried storm systems and moisture into Greece and the norther Mediterranean areas brought on the attacks and wrote,†Attacks are most likely when the wind is southerly†. He defends his position on the weather and winds contributing to the illness by writing: the human body is made to feel changes in the wind and undergo changes at that time, it follows that southerly winds relax the brain and make it flabby relaxing the blood vessels at the same time. 250 The author reenforces his argument later with: As the brain is the first organ in the body to perceive the consciousness derived from the air, if the seasons cause any violent change in the air, the brain undergoes its greatest variation. 51 The author of the Sacred Disease provides an example of how an ideal Hippocratic physician should approach the theory in medicine through natural philosophy, because each of his assertion are backed by real observation and logical deduction. The assertions that epilepsy is a disease or the brain, is heritability, and effected by the environmental conditions of the patient are revolutions in thought compared to the supernatural assumptions that came before and a fter Hippocratic medicine. The author of the sacred disease understood the complexity and huge limitations in treating a disorder of the brain such as epilepsy in his time when he states â€Å" diseases of the brain are the most acute, most serious and most fatal, and the hardest problem in diagnosis for the unskilled practitioner. † 251The author recommends no specific drugs or offers any quick cure for epilepsy. The author does offer general recommendations that are in tuned how an idealized Hippocratic physician should always attempt to do no harm in there treatment with the statement: In this disease as in all others, it should be your aim not to make the disease worse, but to wear it down by applying the remedies most hostile to the disease and those things to which it is unaccustomed. 250 The Hippocratic author also urges the treating physician to use his accumulated skill in recognizing the particular patient and their illness and design a regime of diet and life style to limit the advance of the disease or even cure it given enough skill of the practitioner. In this way the author provides an example of an idealized Hippocratic physician greatly skilled in his practiced by years of experience and careful observation of his patient can bring his patient back to health. The Hippocratic author of the Sacred Disease provided a case example of what an idealized Hippocratic physician should approach the theory and practice of the difficult disease of epilepsy. The author may be credited as being the first person to express that epilepsy was a disease caused naturally within the body and not as a result of superstition or Gods. The Hippocratic author recognized that epilepsy was a brain disorder, that it was heritable, and sensitive to the patients environment. For the treatment of epilepsy the author used the Hippocratic cannon of first doing no harm and using skilled practice with passive treatments aimed to restore balance and health. These revolutionary ideas were distilled into a full naturalistic theory and treatment of epilepsy defended by many years of observation and deduction and are exemplary of Galens idealized Hippocratic physician. G. E. R. Lloyd (ed. ), Hippocratic Writings (London: Penguin Books, 1983). ISBN 0140444513

Argumentative Essay on Obesity in America

Argumentative Essay on Obesity in America Obesity is an issue of concern in America and in many other developed countries. This is why it is not uncommon for students in America to be asked to write argumentative essays on obesity in America. It may be stated that one third of the essays composed by students in one way or another concerns the questions of healthy eating and lifestyle, obesity and alike. The Americans are concerned about this issue, that is why the essays writing on obesity may be done by one and the same student several times during his or her academic career. To construct an acceptable argumentative essay, it is necessary to include a claim as the main argument of the essay paper. In addition, you may also include several other arguments to support the claim, as the essay leads the reader towards a logical conclusion the essay is based upon. To come up with a good argumentative essay, you should begin with writing a strong argument that will give the reader a summarized explanation of what the essay is all about. Next, the introduction should be clear to let the readers know the focus of the argument, by stating the problem and letting the reader know the exact problem that needs to be solved. Once you have written about the problem, the main argument should therefore present the best solution to the argument . When writing the introduction for this type of paper, one should let the audience know why the idea in the paper is actually the right one for that paper or for the proposed problem stated in the essay paper. Depending on the length of the paper, the length of the introduction can range from a paragraph for a short essay paper to a few paragraphs if the essay paper is a lengthy one. Once one has determined the main argument of the essay paper, it is time to come up with arguments to support the main argument, and while doing so, it is good that each one of the arguments be split into its own paragraph. When writing this type of paper, there are a number of different arguments that one could use to stress the main points. This will result in a strong argumentative paper that will do more than send the message across to the readers. One could try using inductive reasoning when writing the argument. This will entail using a series of specific examples to lead the reader towards the conclusion one is attempting to reinforce. One could also make use of deductive arguments by using numerous ideas to lead a reader towards the conclusion. You can buy your essay online, written from scratch by academic experts at CustomWritings.com. 100% custom argumentative written essays of high quality guaranteed.

Demonstrations in Middle East Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Demonstrations in Middle East - Essay Example Bearing in mind that many countries in the Middle East have been suffering from bad governance, it is pertinent to find out how these countries that experience these demonstrations in the Middle East are affected and impacted. My interest in the topic was spurred by the dominant news and reports of these protests and demonstrations in the Middle East. Being a very recent issue, it is important for me to carry out investigations in this area and come up with new and substantial findings that can factually explain the motivation behind the uprising in the Middle East and their impacts. To this day, various countries in the Middle East such as Yemen, Libya, Egypt and Tunisia have seen their rulers forcibly evicted from power. Other countries such as Syria and Bahrain have been experiencing serious civil uprisings that have brought about numerous impacts to them. Major and minor protests have erupted in some Middle East countries, with the major ones being experienced in regions such as Kuwait, Jordan and Iraq and minor ones in Saudi Arabia and Oman. These wars, riots, protests and demonstrations have been christened the Arab Spring (Phares 34). This topic is fairly new because it is involves new and recent o ccurrences. I plan on moving from this broad interest to formulate a narrow topic and thesis by focusing on a single aspect of the Middle East demonstrations that interests me the most. In this particular instance, I intend on focusing on the role of these protests and demonstrations in attaining democracy in the Middle East. These demonstrations in the Middle East are landmark revolutions that have shown the rest of the world that citizens can unite and oppose bad governance and poor leadership. My thesis and primary focus will be on the impact and roles of these demonstrations in bringing about democracy in the Middle East. Countries in the Middle East

Organizational Change And Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Organizational Change And Development - Essay Example Different perspectives on organizational changes According to Grieves (2010), â€Å"The phrase change intervention refers to change actions taken at strategic level to help an organization become more effective† (Grieves, 2010, p.7). Competition is growing day by day because of various reasons and it is necessary for the organizations to device new methods to counter competition. An organization which fails to implement adequate changes in its structure and functioning may struggle to survive in this heavily competitive and highly advanced organizational world. For example Nokia was the leader in the Mobile phone market up to a couple of years before. However, they are not so at present because of the intrusion of smartphones from Apple, Samsung etc. In other words, Nokia failed to implement timely changes in its product ranges and as a result of that they lost considerable market share in mobile phone market. It should be noted that even in normal situation, goal conflict exi sts between firm (owners) and its employees, but the magnitude and intensity of this conflict is very low and so it is hidden, we call this ‘goal difference’, and both parties (firm & employees) accept each other’s goals. In a strategic and major change program, firms alter their goals, which result in shifting and increasing their focus towards new goals. The shift in focus and increased commitment of firm towards attaining its new goals, increase the magnitude and intensity of goal conflict and it become very difficult for both parties to accept each other’s goals (Khan and Rehman, n. d) The interests of the organization and that of the employees are always travelling in opposite directions. Employees want to reduce their workloads as much as possible whereas the... This report stresses that periodical changes are necessary for the organizations to survive in an ever changing market. Structural, functional, developmental, transitional and transformational changes are necessary for the organizations to cater the needs of the changing business world. Many of the traditional business and organizational principles are no longer effective under the current system of business. Because of the huge advancements in science and technology and the subsequent developments in human life, the needs of the needs of the current generation are entirely different from that of the generations in the past. Only those companies which are able to cater the needs of the present generation may survive in the market. In short, organizational changes are unavoidable for an organization which tries to stay in the present heavily globalized market. This essay makes a conclusion that values and valorizations are important terms in the corporate world at present because of the increasing awareness about the public about sustainable business practices. It is impossible for a current organization to exploit community resources as much as possible and provide nothing in return to the communities. Current generation knows the importance of protecting our environment and they deals only with the companies which have good track record of exhibiting social responsibility.

Plato Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Plato - Essay Example In an attempt to analyze the life and ideas of Plato, this paper thus purposes to reflect on chapter 4 of the book â€Å"Living Philosophy: A Historical Introduction to philosophical ideas†. Having been born around 428 BCE in Athens, Plato revolutionized the way of thinking both in Greece and the rest of the world. In his idea of rationalism, Plato regarded reasoning as the cornerstone source and test for knowledge. In his rationalism idea, Plato taught that there is existence of certain truths that cannot be changed, and there is a need for intellectual understanding to identify the truths. These truths were thus believed to be the governing forces of humanity and the universe. Drawing an analogy with the sleep to elaborate his viewpoint of Immortality, Morality, and the Soul, he understood immortality of the soul in terms of reincarnation. Just as a person can wake up after sleep, he believed the dead would wake up in another body (Vaughn, P. 52). Among Platos famous dialogues as depicted in the book â€Å"Living Philosophy: A Historical Introduction to philosophical ideas† is his notion of the Republic. He draws most of his inference of the Republic from the works of Socrates thus coming to an argument point that a republic is a society of people who are governed by justice and fulfilment in life in terms of happiness. Thus, members of the republic must all work together socially and economically to ensure every member is justly and fairly treated according to one’s contribution to the

Sex Education As Intervention Against Teenage Pregnancy Social Work Essay

Sex Education As Intervention Against Teenage Pregnancy Social Work Essay Promotion of sexual health, and all Adolescence, the second decade of life, is increasingly recognized as a critical phase in the life course, especially from the health and social perspectives. The most challenging aspect of adolescence is sexual and reproductive health, as it is aspect of adolescence is sexual and reproductive health, the area that poses the greatest difficulty in maintaining adolescents health and implementing appropriate and effective interventions. For a start, there is a paucity of information and, if there is information, it is often uncoordinated and fragmented and not very useful for policy-making and programme interventions (WHO, 2005) Understanding human sexuality is a prerequisite to the promotion of sexual health, and all over the world sexuality remains one of the most problematic and dangerous aspects of person-hood (Wilson and Mcandrew, S, 2000). Professor Catherine Ingram of the school of Nursing at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill has defined sexuality perhaps more succinctly than most authors in this field. She describes sexuality as an important dimension of the human personality and sees it as being inextricably woven into the fabric of human existence (Catherine Ingram, 1990) The belief prevalent in the early part of the twentieth century, that sexual education of the intelligent adolescent was best served by one short, sharp talk- in the fifth if the school was enlightened, in the sixth if it was felt to be an unpleasant but unavoidable duty-was perhaps typical of attitudes to education in many other disciplines. Facts were enough, and sex was put over in a way similar to that used when dealing with the maps of the coalfields. The only difference was the special atmosphere which surrounded the short, sharp talk. It must often convey to its victim that these matters were unspeakable and no well-bred pupil would either need or investigate them further. This method had at least one advantage- it did not attract unfavourable critic from parents or education committees large because all concerned were much too embarrassed to mention it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After the first World- war, pragmatic objectives in sex education become more apparent and by early 1930s several of our national agencies with the prevention the prevention of illegitimacy, the spread of knowledge about contraceptives and marriages guidance had begun. There was a small but interesting upsurge of intellectuals who nobly hid their embarrassments they discussed sexual matters with their children and solemnly left the bathroom door unlocked so that nudity could be rationally displayed. There were, however, even in those days, teachers in schools effectively relieving adolescent anxiety and ignorance about sex often under the name of human biology, wit equivocally worded syllabuses, and without a word to the head. Such strategies are still in use today.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The ironic evidence from research on the effects of fear-arousing information in connection with types of preventive health behaviour is that people tend to reject the information rather than change their behaviour (Radelfinger, 1965; Young, 1967) In 1936, Wilhelm Reich commented that sex education of his time was a work of deception, focusing on biology while concealing excitement arousal, which is what a pubescent individual, is mostly interested in. Reich added that this emphasis obscures what he believed to be a basic psychological principle: that all worries and difficulties originate from unsatisfied sexual impulse (Reich W, 1936) The existence of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) has given a new sense of urgency to the topic of sex education. In many African nations, where AIDS is at epidemic level, sex education is seen by most scientists as a vital public health strategy. Some international organizations such as Planned Parenthood consider that broad sex education has global benefits, such as controlling the risk of overpopulation and the advancement of womens rights. According to the Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States (SIECUS), 93% of adults they surveyed support sexuality education in high school and 845 support it in junior high school (SIECUS,1984). In fact, 885 of parents of junior high school students and 80% of parents of high students believe that sex education in school makes it easier for them to talk to their adolescents about sex. Also, 92% of adolescents report that they want both to talk to their parents about sex and to have comprehensive in-school examination. When sex education is contentiously debated, the chief controversial points are whether covering child sexuality is valuable or detrimental: the use of birth control such as condoms and hormonal contraception: and the impact of such use on pregnancy outside marriage, teenage pregnancy and the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases (STIs.) Increasing support for abstinence-only sex education by conservative groups has been one of the primary causes of this controversy. Countries with conservative attitudes towards sex education (including the United Kingdom and the United states ) have a higher incidence of STIs and teenage pregnancy (Monbiot, 2004) The proportion of women aged 20-24, who had a child before age 20 is a useful summary indicator that reflects the differences in teenage birth rates by country. This proportion is lowest in Sweden (4%), slightly higher in France (6%), much greater in Canada and Great Britain (11% and 15%, respectively) and highest in the United States (22%). Differences in the proportion giving birth by age 15 and by age 18 are also much higher in the United States than in the other four countries (Jacqueline et al, 2001) Teenage pregnancy is times is a factor of early sexual exposure. Immaturity, inexperience or risky sexual experience often results in the unplanned pregnancy. In the study carried, between 1980 and 1998, among men and women to determine the age of first sexual experience, women were found to be exposed earlier than men (figure 1). Figure 1.  Proportion of participants younger than 16 years at first intercourse, by year of first intercourse. Teenage pregnancy in Europe : The incidence of teenage pregnancy across Europe varies considerably. The United Kingdom has the highest rate in Western Europe and is lower only than Bulgaria , Russia , and Ukraine in Europe as a whole. Throughout most of Western Europe, teenage birth rates fell during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s, but in the United Kingdom , rates have remained high-at or above the level of the early 80s. http://www.bmj.com/content/330/7491/590.full Figure 2: showing teenage pregnancy in 6 European countries over a 25 year period. The graph shows the trend over a twenty-five year period (1973-1995) There is a sharp decline in the United Kingdom figures and then a near steady value in the late 70s and early 80s, before gradually reaching a crescendo in 1991 and then a sharp drop towards the end of the survey. The Netherland has the least and was fairly constant throughout the study period. Germany , France , Ireland ad Italy had fluctuating values, but generally, there was a decline towards the end of the study.   UNITED KINGDOM: In England and Wales , sex education is not compulsory in schools as parents can refuse their children take parting the lessons. The curriculum focuses on the reproductive system, foetal development and the physical and emotional changes of adolescence, while information about contraception and safe sex is discretionary and discussion about relationships is often neglected. Britain has one of the highest teenage pregnancy rate s in Europe and sex education is a heated issues I government and media reports. In 2000 study by the University of Brighton , many 14 to 15 year olds reported disappointment with the content of sex education lessons and felt that confidentiality prevents teenagers from asking teachers about contraception. In a 2008 study conducted by YouGov for channel 4 it was revealed that almost three in ten teenagers said they need more sex and relationships education. In Scotland , the main sex education programme is Healthy respect, which focuses not only on the biological aspects of reproduction but also on relationships and emotions.  Ã‚  Education about contraception and sexually transmitted diseases are included in the programme as a way of encouraging good sexual health. In response to a refusal bythe catholic school to commit to the programme, however, a separate sex education programme has been developed for use in those schools. Funded by the Scottish Government, the programme Called to Love focuses on encourage children to delay sex until marriage and does not cover contraception and as such is a form of  Ã‚  Abstinence-only sex education. It is important to recognise that for some young women, particularly from certain ethnic or social groups, teenage pregnancy can be a positive life choice. Rates of teenage pregnancy within marriage are high, for example, in some South Asian ethnic groups in the United Kingdom . However, for many other young women, the costs of teenage pregnancy can be very high, particularly when linked with poverty. These risks include poorer outcomes for the children of teenage mothers as well as for the mothers themselves.   Ã‚  http://www.bmj.com/content/330/7491/590.full Figure 3: showing the rate of teenage pregnancy in 17 European countries. A sex survey by the World Health Organization concerning the habits of European teenagers in 2006 revealed that the birth rate among 15-19-year-olds in the UK was 27.8 births per 1,000 populations. The graph shows, the United States with the highest rate of teenage pregnancy and Switzerland with the least. The United Kingdom has the highest rate in Europe, which is clearly above the average value in Europe   FRANCE: In France , sex education has been part of school curricula since 1973. Schools are expected to provide 30 to 40 hours of sexual education and pass out condoms to students in grades eight and nine. In January,2000, the French government launched an information campaign on contraception with television and radio spots and the distribution of five million leaflets on contraception to high school students GERMANY: In Germany , sex education has been part of school curricula since 1970. Since 1992 sex education is by law a government duty. It normally covers all subjects concerning the growing-up process, body change during puberty, emotions the biological process of reproduction, sexual activity, partnership, homosexuality, unwanted pregnancies and complications of abortion, the dangers of sexual violence, child abuse and sex-transmitted diseases, but sometimes also things like sex positions. Most schools offer courses on the correct usage of contraception. A survey by the World Health Organization concerning the habits of European teenagers in 2006 revealed German teenagers about contraception. The birth rate among under 15- to 19-year-olds was very low- only 11.7 per 1000 population, compared to the UKs 27.8 births per 1,000 population and in first place -Bulgarias 39.0 per 1,000. FINLAND: Sexual education is usually incorporated into various obligatory courses, mainly as part of biology lessons (in lower grades) and later in a course related to general health issues. The Population and Family Welfare Federation provide all 15-year-olds on introductory sexual package that includes an information brochure, a condom and to be most effective when a multifaceted approach is used, as the problem is multiple determined and multidimensional. The interventions cartoon love story should not only focus on sexual factors and related on sequences, rather Interventions that are designed to reduce teen pregnancy appears they should include non sexual factors such as skills training, and personal development as well. Further, stakeholders including pregnant teens, parents, health sector, schools and churches should work together to devise programs that are practical, evidence based, culturally appropriated and acceptable to the target population. Boostma writing on Sex Education: Preparing Instead of Prevention, surmise that the teenage pregnancy rates has been (one of) the Netherlands for years now. Asking the question if Netherlands are hardly sexual active or if the Dutch promote abstinence from sexual intercourse? He asserts that in the Netherlands , there is not one specific governmental programme for teenage sex education or contraception. There is however, a lot of information about sexuality and contraception that is coming from all directions. Boostma believes that the Dutch approach attitude towards sexuality is one of tolerance, open mindedness and pragmatism and that studies from many countries that giving the message to young people not to have sex are having the opposite effects. The same account for countries where the subject sex is more or less a taboo to talk about. The Dutch concluded that many young people will have sex anyway, so they should be prepared for sexuality than to be prevented from it. This preparing attitude is coming from different levels of the society: The government through the National Health insurance pay for the contraception. Parents talk about sexuality and its consequence. The Mass-media (Television, newspaper, magazines, radio) addresses sexuality and sexual health. Schools give sexuality talk/sex education.  There many accessible services for sexuality and contraception. These and other factors result in a tolerant and pragmatic attitude  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  towards sex make information and contraception accessible and explains the low rate teenage abortion or pregnancy. Sexual heath in the Netherlands means preparation instead of prevention. This preparation means that young people are stimulated to become sexually autonomous and can make their own sensible discussions. Up till now, the Dutch method has proven its effectiveness over and over again.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ian Sutherland, who was director in the Health department of Britain in the early 80s co-authored a book, Health Education, perspective and Choices which dwells on the several choices available to people and the choices they make based on the information they have. The book analyses the different areas where choice is inevitable and the ideological basis for which certain choices should be made. Various authors contributed various topics on the theme Health education. The book first published in 1979 is invaluable as it coincide with the transition period of balancing health needs in Britain . The increased rate in teenage pregnancies and the consequence rise in abortion rates. It was also a period Britain was trying to establish formal curriculum on sex education. In an effort to include as much as possible, the authors referred extensively to a literature which begins with Plato. The authors tried to draw  Ã‚  the readers attention to as many authorities as possible, and so made attempt at bringing together in  Ã‚  one book the extensive libraries of health, education, and health education.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Crosby et al (2008) in a study titled, The Protective Value of Parental Sex Education: A clinical-based exploratory study of adolescent females compared the impact of sex education provided by parents to female adolescents against the same education provided by formal settings to female adolescent. They sampled females aged 16-24 years, attending an adolescent medical clinic in urban area of the south were recruited prior to examination. Each patient completed an anonymous self administered questionnaire. Data from 110 respondents were analysed to compare those who indicating they had learned about each of 4 topics from parents to those not indicating learning about all 4 topics from a parent. The same process was repeated relative to learning about all 4 topics in a formal education setting. The result showed that in controlled, multivariate analyses, adolescent not communicating with parent on all 4 topics were nearly 5 times more likely to report having sex partners in the past 3 months. Further, adolescents were 3.5 times more likely to have low self efficacy for condom use, 2.7 times more likely to ever using alcohol or drugs or sex and about 70% less likely to have ever talked about HIV prevention with a partner before engaging in sex. Differences relative to learning about all 4 topics in formal settings were not found out. Looking at works done recently in the United Kingdom, (SHARE: Sexual Health And Relationships; Safe, Happy and Responsible) included 8400 pupils aged 13-15years in 25 secondary schools in east of Scotland (Wight et al,2002) Questionnaires was completed at base line and follow up done 2 years later. The intervention was a new 5-day teacher training programme plus a 20-session pack: 10sessions were delivered in the third year (at 13-14 years) of secondary school and 10 in the fourth year (at 14-15years). The primary outcome for the study was use of condoms at first intercourse. Similar proportions of both intervention and control groups used condom at first intercourse with less than 105 of pupils reporting first intercourse without condom. For all other behavioural outcomes (condom use after first intercourse, oral contraceptive use and unplanned pregnancy) there were no differences with the groups. However, as with Martiniuks study in Belize, published in this issue of the internatio nal journal of epidemiology, pupils in the intervention group were more knowledgeable than those in the control group.(Martiniuk,2003). The Belize study was well designed in allowing for the clustered nature of samples both when calculating and the sample size and analyzing the data. Publishing the intra-cluster correlation will be good for planning future research. However, there are a number of weaknesses with the randomized procedures discussed by the authors in their paper. The imbalance between groups in the number of classrooms could have been overcome by a block method rather than the simple coin toss employed here. (Schulz and Grimmes, 2002)  Ã‚  There were considerable differences between groups at baseline in terms of gender and sexual experience. These data were not available to the researchers prior to the study starting. It may have been appropriate to allocate classes to intervention and control groups when the results from pre-test questionnaires were available. At this time an alternative randomization procedure such as stratification or minimization may have reduced the chances of imbalance between groups in the study (Pocock, 1984) Anna Graham noted that the factor with the strongest influence preventing teenage pregnancy is educational opportunity. It is well-educated women who tend to delay childbearing. For women aged 20-24 years the longer a woman remains in school the less likely she is to have a child before the age of 20. Adolescents with little schooling are often twice as likely as those with more education to have baby before their 20th  birthday. For example, 46% of young Columbian women with less than 7 years schooling have their first child by the age of 20, compared with 19% of those with more education. The contrast is even greater in Egyptian, where 51% of less educated women have their first birth before the age of 20 compared with 9% of better educated women. She noted that the link between lack of education and early childbearing is also strong among adolescents in the US . Some 58% of young American women who receive less than a high school education give birth by their 20th  birthday, c ompared with 13% of young women who complete at least 12 years of schooling. The report from the Alan Guttmacher Institute, from which these data came, suggested that low level of education is not necessary a direct cause of early child bearing, however, the two characteristic of living in impoverished and rural environments. She further argued that when school is the main source of information about sexual matters, like the cross-sectional surveys in the UK , early and unprotected sexual intercourse is less likely, compared with when other sources such as friends and the media dominate. She surmised that, the greatest impact to be made in reducing unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections is to increase the time spent in education by young women worldwide. She believes this form of intervention is likely to change the role of women in society empowering them to avoid the adverse consequences of sexual activity.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     The author in her work tried to justify the need for a comprehensive education over and above the micro aspect of education-sex education. Believing that with increased time spent acquiring education, a women is more likely to avoid the bad aspect of sexual activity. She had looked into certain aspects of form of sex education and did not really weigh each on its own merit. She probably relied on her experience to draw a far reaching conclusion.   Boostma writing on Sex Education: Preparing Instead of Prevention, surmise that the teenage pregnancy rates has been (one of) the Netherlands for years now. Asking the question if Netherlands are hardly sexual active or if the Dutch promote abstinence from sexual intercourse? He asserts that in the Netherlands , there is not one specific governmental programme for teenage sex education or contraception. There is however, a lot of information about sexuality and contraception that is coming from all directions. He believes that the Dutch approach attitude towards sexuality is one of tolerance, open mindedness and pragmatism and that studies from many countries that giving the message to young people not to have sex are having the opposite effects. The same account for countries where the subject sex is more or less a taboo to talk about. The Dutch concluded that many young people will have sex anyway, so they should be prepared for sexuality than to be prevented from it. This preparing attitude is coming from different levels of the society. He noted that the government through the National Health insurance pay for the contraception. Also parents talk about sexuality and its consequence. The Mass-media (Television, newspaper, magazines, radio) addresses sexuality and sexual health. Schools give sexuality talk/sex education.There many accessible services for sexuality and contraception. These and other factors result in a tolerant and pragmatic attitude  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  towards sex make inform ation and contraception accessible and explain the low rate teenage abortion or pregnancy. Sexual heath in the Netherlands means preparation instead of prevention. This preparation means that young people are stimulated to become sexually autonomous and can make their own sensible discussions. Up till now, the Dutch method has proven its effectiveness over and over again.  Ã‚  Perspective and choices which dwells on the several choices available to people and the choices they make based on the information they have is important in tackling the issue of teenage pregnancy. The different areas where choice is inevitable and the ideological basis for which certain choices should be made should essentially be based on informed choices. Health authorities have proposed several methods of addressing Health education. This was very significant, particularly during the transition period of balancing health needs in Britain . The increased rate in teenage pregnancies and the consequence rise in abortion rates is significant, particularly going back to the period Britain was trying to establish formal curriculum on sex education. Abortion seems to be on the increase in the United Kingdom , according to the office of national statistics in the United Kingdom , the proportion of conceptions terminated by abortion among under 20-year-olds increased slightly from 36 per cent in 1990 to 39 per cent in 2000. Over half (51 per cent) of all conceptions among under 16-year-olds resulted in a termination in 1990 and this increased slightly to 54 per cent in 2000. Legal abortion rates were highest in London and the West Midlands in 2000 and 2001. Similarly, the data collected by the agency noted a corresponding decrease in conception rate, it noted that, In 2000, the conception rate among females under 20 years was 63 per 1,000 females aged 15 to 19 years. This marks a decrease in conception rates over the last decade that mirrors a general decrease among females of all ages. The exception however has been among females aged 13 to 15 years. Rates of conceptions in this group have remained consistent at between 8 to 10 p er 1,000 females from 1990 to 2000.  Ã‚  A likely consequence of abortion is decreased fertility and sexual infections, the agency equally noted a rise in sexual related infection within this time period, Genital infection with chlamydia trachomatis if untreated, is associated with pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in women and infertility. The diagnostic rate of genital chlamydia infection in females aged under 20 years old has increased since the mid-1990s. In 2001, the highest rates of diagnosed chlamydia seen in GUM clinics, were among 16- to 19-year-olds (1,035 per 100,000 females). Genital warts are the most commonly diagnosed viral STI. In 2001, 29 per cent of females diagnosed with genital warts were under 20 years of age, compared with only 10 per cent of males in the same age group. Rates of diagnosis among females aged 16 to 19 years increased by more than 15 per cent during the last decade and reached 680 per 100,000 females in 2001. Intervention in teenage pregnancy, need to among other things focus on improving contraceptive use, and initiate attitudinal changes and life style  Ã‚  likely to prevent pregnancy and sexual transmission infection transmission. This should involve long-term services and interventions, which are tailored to addressing the major causes of teenage pregnancy. This should be spelt in information, which are clear and unambiguous and may involve ideas which the youths relate with. It should also be home grown, in that it should relate with the culture or practices inherent in the society. This will start with identifying the risk group. There are certain categories among this age, which appear to be vulnerable. Vulnerability may be by choice or imposed due to social economic reasons or accessibility to health care, such as contraception use. Interpersonal skills development is vital in achieving this objective. Programmes and other educational facilities, which allow interpersonal development, should be explored, this will allow productive engagement. Clinic service for education and information, will also serve a vital role in checkmating the trend. As teenage will not only benefit, but the society will be better for it as well. Information dissemination is vital and there is the possibility of teenagers accessing this on their own, if encouraged to talk to health personnel or attend clinics for advice and education. Education in this sense should be all encompassing and structured to the need at hand. Constructive engagement and participation of all and sundry are v ital. Periodic review of methods is important in our ever changing world. Therefore, interventions should not just be in theory, but clear goals which are practicable should be outlined to follow the strategies mapped out. Outcomes envisaged, need to be weighed in relation to the input. The delicate age, adolescence confers on teenage, makes it imperative, to address peer pressure and to make leaders of peer groups participatory in addressing the problems identified. All this need be done in an atmosphere of trust and confidentiality. It is often difficult to identify sexually active individuals, therefore, the scope of the intervention need be broad-based to cater for all and sundry. This can be achieved by recruiting experts or people trained in working with youths, who have enough experience to deal with the challenges teenage present. Catherine et al 2003, working on reviews which looked at teenage pregnancy and interventional means of check in the scourge, surmised the intervention on socio-demographics, which addressed the various health, education and psycho-social needs of teenagers and their environment in tackling the problem. They found out that, there is mixed evidence for the effectiveness of school-based and/or teacher-delivered sex education. They are of the opinion that, the best chance of interventions being successful in this setting is when they are multifactor and address a broad range of issues, including self esteem, vocational development, and access to services. In the area of Clinic/primary care as an interventional means, they equally believe that, there is mixed evidence for the effectiveness of interventions that take place in a clinic/primary care setting alone, and that it will be beat, based on the literature search, that they are linked widely to other community and school services, and evaluated as part of a broader programme. They are of the view that, confidentiality is of utmost importance considering the age group. They also surmised that in the UK context, particularly on UK-specific services and settings, such as doctors who may be the first to see these individuals. On Education and information dissemination, there is mixed evidence for the effectiveness of educational approaches. It was found out that, the more positive outcomes, have been found for education based approaches which link directly to services offered. This also includes a broad range of skills to help improve confidence and relationships among teenagers Vocational development may also be useful. It is said that, programmes should be long term, sustained across school years, and be in place before teenagers become sexually active. It is also suggested that, there is the need to support young parents to continue their education to enhance educational and employment opportunity for parents, mother/child interaction, and social outcomes for children. Early educational interventions for disadvantaged children can improve long-term. The family is foremost in checking the trend and this is dependent on teenagers getting support from parents and families. Neglect has always been attributed as a cause of teenage pregnancy. This could be deliberate or due to pressure from social responsibilities from parents to support the family, often leading to children not getting enough or desired attention from their parents. They further found out that, community interventions should be developed with regard to local needs and existing services. There is some evidence that multi-factor interventions involving a degree of community activity or service may be effective at improving contraceptive use. On  Ã‚  school-based clinics., it is noted that, although, more research is needed on these as the evidence covered by reviews here was methodologically weak, They may be effective as part of multi-factor programmes, but clinic-based healthcare programmes for teenage mothers and their children can improve their health outcomes, if taken as a priority at all stages.  The media and the Internet are often seen as social agents which are often not properly utilised, either as a child educator and form of entertainment, but also as a means of redeeming the problem. The study noted that much work has not been done in the United Kingdom , but again, further work is needed here for the UK . Skills, meant to give self-esteem are vital.  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is encouraging result for approaches that focus on these factors, particularly when they are part of a broad-ranging intervention. Peer education, is also important in addressing the core issues right from the onset. Abstinence, as an interventional means has actually, not been fully found to be effective, as there are little or no evidence for the e

Ch 18

Chapter 18 Ethers & Epoxides; Thiols and Sulfides Assigned Reading from McMurry: Read Sections 18. 1 through 18. 9; not responsible for â€Å"Focus on †¦ Epoxy Resins & Adhesives, pp. 697-698). Recommended Problems from McMurry: 18. 1a-e;18. 18. 2;18. 3a-d; 18. 4; 18. 5a-d; 18. 6a-b; 18. 7a-b; 18. 8; 18. 9; 18. 10; 18. 11; 18. 12a,b; 18. 13a,b; 18. 14a-c; 18. 16a-f; 18. 17; 18. 18; 18. 19a-c; 18. 20; 18. 21; 18. 22; 18. 23a-e; 18. 24a-I; 18. 25a-f; 18. 26a-d; 18. 27; 18. 28; 18. 29ad; 18. 30a-e; 18. 31; 18. 32; 18. 33; 18. 34; 18. 35a-d; 18. 36; 18. 37; 18. 38; 18. 39; 18. 40a,b; 18. 41a-d; 18. 2; 18. 43; 18. 44; 18. 45; 18. 45; 18. 46; 18. 47; 18. 48; 18. 49; 18. 51; 18. 52; 18. 53; 18. 54; 18. 551-e; 18. 56; 18. 57; 18. 58a-b; 18. 59a-b; 18. 60; 18. 61. 18. 1 Names and Properties of Ethers Method A: Simple ethers; alphabetize if two organic substituents. CH3–CH2–O–CH2–CH3 Diethyl ether Methyl propyl ether O CH3–CH2–CH2–O œCH3 CH3 Methyl phenyl ether SP 18. 01 Provide systematic names for the following ethers. CH3–CH2–O–CH2–CH2–CH2–CH3 O SP 18. 02 Provide structures for the following systematic names. Systematic name: Isopropyl phenyl ether Systematic name: Cyclohexyl ethyl etherMethod B: Other functional groups present, ether component is an â€Å"alkoxy† substituent. Alkoxy examples: methoxy -OCH3, ethoxy -OCH2CH3, propoxy -OCH2CH2CH3, etc. O C H3 O CH3 O C H3 para-Dimethoxybenzene 3-Methoxy-1-cyclopentene SP 18. 03 Provide systematic names for the following complex ethers. OCH3 O CH2CH3 Cl SP 18. 04 Provide structures for the following systematic names. Systematic name: meta-Bromopropoxybenzene Systematic name: 1-Isopropoxycyclopentene 18. 2 Synthesis of Ethers The Williamson Ether Synthesis R + O an alkoxide C X R SN2 an alkyl halide methyl & 1o best; X = Cl, Br, I, OTos O C ether productExample: O Na + Sodium phenoxide CH3 Br O CH3 Phenyl methyl e ther (anisole) + Na Br + X SP 18. 05 Complete the following reactions. CH3 CH3 C O Na + CH3 I + Na I CH3 CH3 CH3 C CH3 I + Na O CH3 + Na I SP 18. 06 Provide the suitable alkoxide and alkyl halide necessary to produce 2-ethoxy-2-methyl butane in good yield. CH3 CH3 CH2 C O CH3 CH2 CH3 + Na Br 8. 4 Oxymercuration Intermediates †¢ For laboratory-scale hydration of an alkene †¢ †¢ Use mercuric acetate in THF followed by sodium borohydride Markovnikov orientation – via mercurinium ion Alkoxymercuration of Alkenes General Reaction: R C C 2) NaBH4 H C R EtherAlkene RO Step #1 RO C 1) Hg(OAc)2, ROH H g OA c C C Step #2 R + HOAc Markovnikov addition SP 18. 07 Complete the following reactions by displaying the final major organic product. H C 1) Hg(OAc)2, CH3OH H C 2) NaBH4 H CH3 CH3 C C H CH3 1) Hg(OAc)2, CH3OH 2) NaBH4 SP 18. 08 Specify the alkene and alcohol needed to produce the following ether. Alcohol OCH2CH3 1) Hg(OAc)2, CH3 2) NaBH4 Alkene 18. 3 Reactions of Ethe rs: Acidic Ether Cleavage General Reaction: HX C O C C OH + X C (strong acid) Ether Alcohol Alkyl halide SP 18. 09 Predict the product for the following ether-cleavage reaction. CH3 CH3 C O CH3 HBr CH2CH3 8. 4 Reactions of Ethers: Claisen Rearrangement O OH 1,3 O to C shift Thermodynamically more stable o 250 Allyl phenyl ether C9H10O ortho-Allyl phenol C9H10O Mechanism (involves six-membered transition state): 1 O TS 2 3 1 O 2 H keto-enol tautomerization 3 O H SP 18. 10 Predict the structure for the following Claisen rearrangement. O o 250 2-Butenyl phenyl ether C10H12O 18. 5 Cyclic Ethers: Epoxides (2 methods) General Reaction 1: O C C + R Alkene C O O O O C H A peracid C An epoxide R C O A carboxylic acid Specific Example 1: O Cl C O O H m-CPBA o H O O + CH2Cl2, 25 C H 1,2-Epoxycycloheptane Cl H C O H 18. Cyclic Ethers: Epoxides (2 methods) General Reaction 2: C OH X2, H2O C C C X A halohydrin Alkene O NaOH H2O C + H2O + NaX C An epoxide Review Section 7. 3 Specific Example 2: H CH3 C C H CH3 cis-2-Butene Br2 H2O H CH3 Br C OH C H CH3 NaOH H2O O HC CH3 C H + H2O + NaBr CH3 meso-2,3-Dimethyl-oxirane (or cis-2,3-epoxybutane) SP 18. 11 Fill in the appropriate intermediates showing the correct stereochemistry. H CH3 C C CH3 Br2 NaOH H H2O H2O trans-2-Butene + H2O + NaBr 18. 6 Reactions of Epoxides: Ring-Opening General epoxide structure: O C Since each atom is sp3 there is considerable angle strain in the epoxide ring-system.C Acidic Conditions: Epoxide opening under acidic conditions (aqueous acid) yields 1,2-diols General Reaction: H H O O C H C HO C H2O An epoxide C OH A 1,2-diol (glycol) H O C H C + O H H O C + C H O H H O H Specific Example (using symmetrical epoxide): H + H H3O OH H2O OH O H H trans-1,2-Cyclohexanediol SP 18. 12 Predict the correct structure of the product diol showing the correct stereochemistry. O H CH3 C C CH3 H trans-2,3-epoxybutane H3O+ H2O Note: Epoxide opening under anhydrous acidic conditions yields halohydrins. Specific Example ( 2 ° and 1 ° carbons): o 1 carbon o 2 carbon O CH3 H C C H H 1,2-EpoxypropaneOH HCl Et2O CH3 C Cl CH2 Cl + CH3 H 1-Chloro-2-propanol (90%) C CH2 OH H 2-Chloro-1-propanol (10%) SP 18. 13 Using the above model predict the major halohydrin. O H C H C HCl H Et2O O H C C H H HCl OH C Et2O H Cl CH2 Cl + C CH2 OH H Explanation: In cases where a 2 ° carbon and a 1 ° carbon form the epoxide ring, the major halohydrin product will be the one where the incipient alcohol is 2 ° and the halide is 1 °. Upon protonation of the epoxide oxygen the halide ion simple attacks the less-hindered 1 ° carbon with a greater frequency to give the major regioisomer. Specific Example (3 ° and 1 ° carbons): SP 18. 4 Using the above model predict the major halohydrin. Circle one. O C C H H HCl OH C Et2O + C H Cl Cl H C OH C H H Explanation: In cases where a 3 ° carbon and a 1 ° carbon form the epoxide ring, the major halohydrin product will be the one where the incipient alcohol is 1 ° and the halide is 3 °. Upon protonation of the epoxide oxygen the halogen attacks the more-stabilized (same as moresubstituted) carbon atom to give the major regioisomer described. Basic Conditions: Note: Nucleophile will always attack least-hindered position. Specific Example: o 3 carbon 1o carbon O CH3 CH3 C C H H OH NaOH H2O, ? CH3 C CH2 OH CH3 -Methyl-1,2-propanediol SP 18. 15 Predict the structure of the 1,2-diol from the following reaction. O C C H H NaOH H2O, ? Reaction with Grignard Reagents: O CH3 CH3 C C H H OH 1) CH3CH2MgBr, Et2O 2) (aq) NH4Cl CH3 C CH2 CH3 CH2 CH3 SP 18. 16 Predict the structure of the organic product from the following Grignardepoxide reaction. O H C C H H 1) CH3MgBr, Et2O 2) (aq) NH4Cl Reaction with a 1 ° amine: O H C OH CH2 H H2NCH2CH2CH3 C CH2 N CH2 CH2 H Reaction with a 2 ° amine: O H C OH H H3C CH2 + N H3C H C CH2 N CH3 CH3 CH3 SP 18. 17 Predict the structure of the epoxide and amine needed to generate the amino alcohol shown to the right.OH + C H3 C CH3 Epoxide Amine CH2 N H 18. 7 Crown Ethers †¢ Large rings consisting of repeating (-OCH2CH2-) or similar units †¢ Named as x-crown-y – x is the total number of atoms in the ring – y is the number of oxygen atoms – 18-crown-6 ether: 18-membered ring containing 6 oxygen atoms †¢ Central cavity is electronegative and attracts cations 18. 8 Thiols and Sulfides †¢ Thiols (RSH), are sulfur analogues of alcohols – Named with the suffix -thiol – SH group is called â€Å"mercapto group† (â€Å"capturer of mercury†) Thiols: Formation and Reaction †¢ From alkyl halides by displacement with a sulfur nucleophile such as –SH The alkylthiol product can undergo further reaction with the alkyl halide to give a symmetrical sulfide, giving a poorer yield of the thiol Sulfides †¢ Sulfides (RSR? ), are sulfur analogues of ethers – Named by rules used for ethers, with sulfide in place of ether for simple c ompounds and alkylthio in place of alkoxy Using Thiourea to Form Alkylthiols †¢ Thiols can undergo further reaction with the alkyl halide to give dialkyl sulfides †¢ For a pure alkylthiol use thiourea (NH2(C=S)NH2) as the nucleophile †¢ This gives an intermediate alkylisothiourea salt, which is hydrolyzed cleanly to the alkyl thiourea Oxidation of Thiols to Disulfides Reaction of an alkyl thiol (RSH) with bromine or iodine gives a disulfide (RSSR) †¢ The thiol is oxidized in the process and the halogen is reduced Sulfides †¢ Thiolates (RS? ) are formed by the reaction of a thiol with a base †¢ Thiolates react with primary or secondary alkyl halide to give sulfides (RSR’) †¢ Thiolates are excellent nucleophiles and react with many electrophiles Sulfides as Nucleophiles †¢ Sulfur compounds are more nucleophilic than their oxygen-compound analogues – 3p valence electrons (on S) are less tightly held than 2p electrons (on O) †¢ Sulfides react with primary alkyl halides (SN2) to give rialkylsulfonium salts (R3S+) Oxidation of Sulfides †¢ Sulfides are easily oxidized with H2O2 to the sulfoxide (R2SO) †¢ Oxidation of a sulfoxide with a peroxyacid yields a sulfone (R2SO2) †¢ Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) is often used as a polar aprotic solvent 18. 9 Spectroscopy of Ethers †¢ Infrared: C–O single-bond stretching 1050 to 1150 cm? 1 overlaps many other absorptions. †¢ Proton NMR: H on a C next to ether O is shifted downfield to ? 3. 4 to ? 4. 5 – The 1H NMR spectrum of dipropyl ether shows this signal at ? 3. 4 – In epoxides, these H’s absorb at ? 2. 5 to ? 3. 5 in their 1H NMR spectra Carbon NMR: C’s in ethers exhibit a downfield shift to ? 50 to ? 80 Let’s Work a Problem When 2-methyl-2,5-pentanediol is treated with sulfuric acid, dehydration occurs and 2,2dimethyltetrahydrofuran is formed. Suggest a mechanism for this reaction. Which of the two ox ygen atoms is most likely to be eliminated and why? Answer First, there is protonation of the 3? –OH group, then a 3? carbocation is formed via loss of H2O. Then there is a nucleophilic attack of the carbocation by the 2nd –OH group. The 3? OH group is the one eliminated in all likelihood because its removal involves the formation of the more stable 3? carbocation.

Evil in the Environment Essay

John Locke is a philosopher known for introducing various significant concepts to different fields of studies. His work encompasses the fields of psychology, political science, and philosophy. One of his main contributions is his assertion that the human mind is completely empirical.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This principle would lead one to believe that every human being is born into this world having the same capacity. All human minds are empty slates (tabula rasa) when one is just born. (Hooker, 1999) Behavior is acquired through the various empirical experiences that a human being undergoes. Moral behavior stems from an individual’s empirical experiences. (Hooker, 1999) As such, it can be assumed that all immoral behavior or all â€Å"evil† is the product of the environment rather than individual. (Hooker, 1999) Such line of reasoning will lead us to assume that evil from the environment can be eradicated by a simple change in human thinking and behavior. This is known as the third â€Å"premise† of the enlightenment thinkers.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The said premise remains to be significant in today’s time and age. For one, it helps people today realize that the evil that pervades in society today can be erased by humans themselves. Moreover, it teaches society that there is still hope for a better world and the fulfillment of such dreams lies in the reformation of human beings and society itself.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The primary effect of such premise on society is that it gives the responsibility for the evil in the world on the shoulders of people. Fingers cannot be pointed to the heavens or to other creatures to blame them for the evil that continues to exist in the world. Rather, the premise asserts that the evil in the world is the product of human misbehavior. Human wrong doing has created the immorality that exists in the world today. However, the most important lesson that Locke’s principle teaches us today is that just as the responsibility for the evil in the world lies in our hands, so does the responsibility to change and eradicate such evil.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are many ways by which humans can reform and change their environment. Locke had asserted that education is the primary way by which the moral and intellectual character of the human being can be changed for the better. (Hooker, 1999) Such assertion remains to be significant in today’s society. What the premise tells us is that education is even more valuable today for it is the way by which the world can be made better. Education exists not simply for the betterment of the individual’s own life. It is not for the sole purpose of helping someone find a better job, a better way of life. Education’s primary purpose is to help every human being to determine how he can help make the world a better place. It is through education that society can reform its ways and help remove evil from the environment. Thus, the role of education is society is exemplified by the third â€Å"premise.† The role of education becomes ever more important and significant basing on what has been stated in the premise. The future of today’s society lies in the hands of human beings. The betterment of the world and the eradication of evil are the responsibilities of all human beings. Just as they can create evil, they can erase them. Reformation of one’s ways is the manner by which evil in our â€Å"faulty environment† can be obliterated. Works Cited: Hooker, Richard. Seventeenth Century Enlightenment Thought. 1999. World Civilizations. 12 Dec. 2006 from: http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ENLIGHT/PREPHIL.HTM.

Keynes essays

Keynes essays Keynesian Economics vs. Supply Side Economics Two controversial economic policies are Keynesian economics and Supply Side economics. They represent opposite sides of the economic policy spectrum and were introduced at opposite ends of the 20th century, yet still are the most famous for their effects on the economy of the United States when they were used. The founder of Keynesian economic theory was John Maynard Keynes. He made many great accomplishments during his time and probably his greatest was what he did for America in its hour of need. During the 1920s, the U.S. experienced a stock market crash of enormous proportions which crippled the economy for years. Keynes knew that to recover as soon as possible, the government had to intervene and put a decrease on taxes along with an increase in spending. By putting more money into the economy and allowing more Americans to keep what they earned, the economy soon recovered and once again became prosperous. Keynes ideas were very radical at the time, and Keynes was called a socialist in disguise. Keynes was not a socialist, he just wanted to make sure that the people had enough money to invest and help the economy along. As far as stressing extremes, Keynesian economics pushed for a happy medium where output and prices are constant, and there is no surplus in supply, but also no deficit. Supply Side economics emphasized the supply of goods and services. Supply Side economics supports higher taxes and less government spending to help economy. Unfortunately, the Supply Side theory was applied in excess during a period in which it was not completely necessary. The Supply Side theory, also known as Reganomics, was initiated during the Regan administration. During the 1970s, the state and local governments increased sales and excise taxes. These taxes were passed from business to business and finally to the customer, resulting in higher p...

Estimating Oil and Gas Volumes Using Structure Contour Maps Essays

Estimating Oil and Gas Volumes Using Structure Contour Maps Essays Estimating Oil and Gas Volumes Using Structure Contour Maps Paper Estimating Oil and Gas Volumes Using Structure Contour Maps Paper The estimation of oil and gas reserves is a completely complex process which involves the integration of geological, geophysical, reservoir and production engineering data. In order to arrive at the most likely reserves, the reserves are estimated by using deterministic and probabilistic methods as there are various uncertainties that are involved in the estimating the reserves. In defining the hydrocarbon, Reserves refers to the quantities of oil and gas which can be commercially recovered from a given date forward whereas Resources are the reserves plus additional oil and gas that cannot be produced due to techno-economic factors. In the different stages of a field exploration and developments there are different reserves estimate methods that are generally used at the respective stages. One of the methods which is generally used from when the field is discovered up to when it is abandoned is the Oil and Gas-Len- Place method at surface conditions. As usually only some of the oil and gas-in?place can be recovered, therefore the total oil and gas-in-place must be multiplied by a certain recovery factor which depends on the individual field. Moreover, when oil and gas are brought to the surface it shrinks and expands respectively. Therefore if the surface volume of the in-place oil and gas were to be calculated, the Formation Volume Factor which accounts for the shrinkage and expansion factors, should be vided and multiplied respectively for the oil and gas. At 1280 ms is the lowest tested oil. IP category is where there is 90% confidence. For UP Oil Reserve so-pay, the Iso- pay value within the entire gas cap is mm and falls to zero at 1300 ms which is at ten 011-water contact penning on ten structural Tall. A a ten UP 011 Reserve has an so-pay value of mm in the entire gas cap area and reduces to zero at 1380 ms which is at the last closed contour depending also on the structural fall. The UP and UP categories have 50% and 10% confidence associated with them respectively. After the so-pay contours are constructed, the area between two respective ISO-pay contours is estimated by means of drawing the contours on a tracing paper and by inspecting the area by means of an underlying graph paper in units of centimeter square (CM). Once the area between the two ISO-pay contours has been estimated ND converted into kilometer-square (km) according to the given scale, the rock volume is estimated by multiplying the area converted to meter-square (mm) by the average thickness in meters (m) between the two so-Pay contour values. The above is done for all the IP Gas Reserve so-pay and the 1 P, UP and UP Oil Reserve so-pays. An example of the above is as follows. The diagram above shows the 1 P so-pay contour map of the Gas Cap. Figure 1: IP gas so-pay contour map As explained before the so-pay value ranges from zero to fifteen which depends on the structural gain which was from (1220 to 1205 ms). The three areas are divided into Area A, B and C respectively. Therefore in order to find the rock volume between the 15 and 10 so-pay values (Area B), the area between them is first calculated.

Collage Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Collage Reflection - Essay Example I chose this mixture of quotes, wise sayings, songs, poems, and book excerpts to symbolize who I am as a person. My true identity has been shaped by my childhood experiences, and my goals and dreams that I am still living out. Ever since I can remember, my fondest dream and goal in life has been to attend college. Early on I realized how much of a struggle it would be to gain entry into a top university in the United States, but that did not derail my efforts. In the words of Winston Churchill, â€Å"Never, never, never give up† (Never Give Up Quotes). This quote is in my collage because it defines my struggle to keep going and my desire to push through any obstacle that my come my way. My passion is finance. I want to be a successful leader in business so that I can help mentor others and inspire to them succeed as well. I have a passion and drive in me to do this that will not go away. The quote by Li Shing that begins â€Å"The future may be made up of many factors, but where it truly lies is in the hearts and minds of men† certainly epitomizes my belief in this area (Passion Quotes). My dedication is truly not for my own gain, but is based on a love for people and my country. The reason I chose to put this particular quote in red in because it symbolizes passion. Passion is a burning desire to do something. It is a goal and dream that I cannot rest from until it is realized. In addition, this passion was instilled in me from an early age. The quote ‘Will you join the dance?† (Carroll 1992) reflects my childhood.... I chose this mixture of quotes, wise sayings, songs, poems, and book excerpts to symbolize who I am as a person. My true identity has been shaped by my childhood experiences, and my goals and dreams that I am still living out. Ever since I can remember, my fondest dream and goal in life has been to attend college. Early on I realized how much of a struggle it would be to gain entry into a top university in the United States, but that did not derail my efforts. In the words of Winston Churchill, â€Å"Never, never, never give up† (Never Give Up Quotes). This quote is in my collage because it defines my struggle to keep going and my desire to push through any obstacle that my come my way. My passion is finance. I want to be a successful leader in business so that I can help mentor others and inspire to them succeed as well. I have a passion and drive in me to do this that will not go away. The quote by Li Shing that begins â€Å"The future may be made up of many factors, but wh ere it truly lies is in the hearts and minds of men† certainly epitomizes my belief in this area (Passion Quotes). My dedication is truly not for my own gain, but is based on a love for people and my country. The reason I chose to put this particular quote in red in because it symbolizes passion. Passion is a burning desire to do something. It is a goal and dream that I cannot rest from until it is realized. In addition, this passion was instilled in me from an early age. The quote ‘Will you join the dance?† (Carroll 1992) reflects my childhood. From an early age, I have desired to do something more with my life and I did dream about this as the days went by. I want to a positive force for change in whatever I do, so I certainly do intend

Racism in the United States of America Coursework

Racism in the United States of America - Coursework Example With one step forward to curb the vice, America has appeared to make another step behind in the matters concerning racial understanding (Wise, 2013). In the last century, the face of racism was largely whites against blacks, but today racism is multi-colored and has a multicultural face; it has expanded to include antagonism among people of different cultures. Americans made history by electing Barrack Obama as the President of the most powerful nation on the earth. Obama defied expectations in the campaigns by influencing the citizens with his call for hope and change. Since the country chose a black President, some quarters have suggested that racial barriers have been broken. They claim that the long-standing social chauvinism against blacks is a thing of the past since Americans chose a black person to govern them. Some events in the recent past indicate that America has a long way to go so as to have equity among all races (Wise, 2013). The number of people arrested and jailed in the last few decades has increased in America. A majority of the arrests has been associated with the fight against drugs. Although both the whites and blacks have been involved in the illegal activity, the blacks comprised the majority of the people who got arrested. A report by Human Rights Watch in 2008 indicated that although the blacks comprise 14% of the of drug abusers, 37% of the individuals arrested for the offense were black Americans. Consequently, blacks, who comprise 13% of the American population and about 15% of drug abusers, are 37% of the offenders put in custody because of drug crimes (Miah, 2010). Statistics indicate that the police check blacks and Latinos at a higher rate when compared to the whites. In the city of New York, 80% of the police stop involved blacks and Latinos.