Flirting: Investment and Return

Solution to Case 02 Risk and Return Flirting With Risk Questions: 1. Imagine you are Bill. How would you explain to Mary the relationship between risk and return of individual stocks? I would explain to Mary that risk and return are positively related, i. e. if one expects to earn higher returns, then one has to be willing to invest in stocks whose price can vary significantly from year to year or in different economic conditions. For example, in the table below we see that treasury bills would have yielded 4% with almost no variability, while the index fund is expected to yield 10. 1% with a standard deviation of 9. 15%. | Expected Rate of Return | |Scenari/o |Probability |Treasury Bill |Index Fund |Utility Company |High-Tech Company|Counter-Cyclical | | | | | | | |Company | |Recession |20% |4% |-2% |6% |-5% |20% | |Near Recession |20% |4% |5% |7% |2% |16% | |Normal |30% |4% |10% |9% |15% |12% | |Near Boom |10% |4% |15% |11% |25% |-9% | |Boom |20% |4% |25% |14% |45% |-20% | |Expecte d Return | |4% |10. 10% |9. 2% |15. 40% |5. % | |Standard Deviation | |0% | |2. 82% | |15. 69% | | | | |9. 15% | |17. 69% | | 2. Mary has no idea what beta means and how it is related to the required return of the stocks. Explain how you would help her understand these concepts. Beta is defined as the systematic risk of an asset. It measures the relationship between the returns of an asset and a market portfolio. Stocks that vary by more than the market have betas greater than 1 and vice-versa. The formula for calculating beta is as follows:Beta = Covariance of stock returns vis-a-vis market returns Variance of market returns According to the Security Market Line equation, Required return on a stock = Risk free rate + (Expected Market Return – Risk free rate)* Beta This shows that high beta stocks have a have a higher required rate of return than low beta stocks. Index FundUtility Co. High-Tech Co. Counter-Cyclical Co. Exp. Return10. 10%9. 2%15. 4%5. 9% Std. Deviation9. 15%2. 82%17. 69%15. 69% Cov (Rs, Rm)——–0. 00300. 0276-0. 0144Beta1. 00. 301. 86-1. 54 Required Rate10. 1%5. 84%15. 37%-5. 41% *See spreadsheet for calculations 3. How should Bill demonstrate the meaning and advantages of diversification to Mary?Diversification refers to the strategy of investing in stocks, which are not highly correlated with each other, for example, high-tech firms and utility firms, or high-tech firms and counter-cyclical firms. Diversification reduces the portfolio’s variability and thereby enables investors to earn a more stable rate of return. To demonstrate the advantages of diversification, Bill should calculate the expected return and risk (standard deviation) of a portfolio composed of equal investment in the High-Tech Co. and the Counter-Cyclical Co. —since these companies are negatively correlated with each other– and compare the results with the return and risk levels of the High-Tech Co. by itself. | | | | | 50-50 Po rtfolio | | |Scenario |Probability | High-Tech Co. |Counter-Cyclical Co. |50-50 Portfolio |Prob. *E(Portfolio Return) |[Rp-E(Rp)]^2 | | | | | | | |*Ps | |Recession |20% |-5% |20% |7. 50% |1. 50% |0. 000198 | |Near Recession |20% |2% |16% |9. 00% |1. 80% |0. 00054 | |Normal |30% |15% |12% |13. 50% |4. 05% |0. 000244 | |Near Boom |10% |25% |-9% |8. 00% |0. 80% |0. 000070 | |Boom |20% |45% |-20% |12. 50% |2. 50% |0. 000068 | |Expected Return | | 15. 40% |5. 90% | |10. 5% | | |Standard Deviation | | 17. 69% |15. 69% | | |2. 52% | The data in the table above shows that a portfolio comprised of equal investment in High-Tech Co. and Counter-Cyclical Co. stock would provide an expected rate of return that would be in between the returns of the two stocks with an expected risk level that would be much smaller than either of the two stocks’ expected standard deviation. 4. Using a suitable diagram explain how Bill could use the security market line to show Mary which stocks could be und ervalued and which may be overvalued? [pic] Stock |Beta |Required Return |Expected Return | |T-Bill |0. 00 |4% |4. 00% | |Index Fund |1. 00 |10. 10% |10. 10% | |Utility Co. |0. 30 |5. 84% |9. 20% | |High-Tech Co. |1. 86 |15. 37% |15. 40% | |Counter-Cyclical Co. |-1. 54 |-5. 41% |5. 90% | The solid line represents the required rates of return of the 5 investment alternatives as per the Security Market Line equation.Those stocks whose expected returns are higher than their required returns plot above the line and are considered to be undervalued (Counter-Cyclical Co. , Utility Co. and High-Tech Co. ) while those that plot below the line are considered to be over-valued. 5. During the presentation. Mary asks Bill â€Å" Let’s say I choose a well diversified portfolio, what effect will interest rates have on my portfolio? How should Bill respond? A well-diversified portfolio is one that is closely correlated to the market index. Real interest rates are typically inversely relate d to stock prices. Hence, if interest rates increase, Mary’s portfolio return will decrease by as much as the market index does and vice versa. In other words, her portfolio will mirror the changes in the market index. 6.Should Bill take Mary out of investing in stocks and preferably put all her money in fixed-income securities? Explain. Not necessarily. Mary could still invest in a well-diversified portfolio such as the market index fund. The problem with fixed-income securities is that they have reinvestment and price risk. By holding a well-diversified portfolio of stocks, Mary can enjoy a reasonably good rate of return over the long term. Fixed-income securities have been known to barely keep up with inflation. 7. Mary tells Bill, â€Å"I keep hearing stories about how people have made thousands of dollars by following their brokers’ â€Å"hot tips. Can you give me some hot tips regarding undervalued stocks? † How should Bill respond?Bill should discourage Mary from taking speculative positions in common stock, given her age and lifecycle status. He should caution her about the riskiness associated with stock price volatility and remind her again about the advantages of diversification. 8. If Mary decided to invest her money equally in high-tech and counter-cyclical stocks. What would her portfolio’s expected return and risk level be? Are these expectations realistic? Please explain. With equal investments in High-Tech and Counter-Cyclical stocks, the portfolio expected return would be 10. 65% and its expected standard deviation would be 2. 52%. (see Answer 3 above for details). These expectations are only as realistic as the numbers used to calculate them.Thus, one has to make realistic assumptions regarding probabilities and returns, in order to get realistic expected return estimates. 9. What would happen if Mary were to put 70% of her portfolio in the High-Tech stock and 30% in the Index Fund? Would this combination be bett er for her? Explain. |Scenario |Probability | High-Tech |Index Fund | 70-30 |Prob. *E(Portfolio) | {[Rp-E(Rp)]^2}*Ps | | | | | |Portfolio | | | |Recession |20% |-5% |-2% |-4. 10% |-0. 82% |0. 06415362 | |Near Recession |20% |2% |5% |2. 90% |0. 58% |0. 002380562 | |Normal |30% |15% |10% |13. 50% |4. 05% |2. 883E-06 | |Near Boom |10% |25% |15% |22. 00% |2. 20% |0. 000670761 | |Boom |20% |45% |25% |39. 00% |7. 80% |0. 012690722 | |Expected Return | |15. 0% |10. 10% | |13. 81% | | |Standard Deviation | |17. 69% |9. 15% | | |14. 89% | Given the above table, it seems clear that the 70-30 portfolio composed of High-Tech and the index fund would not necessarily be better for Mary, since it has a much higher expected level of risk (14. 89% versus 2. 52%) and only a slightly higher level of expected return (13. 81% versus 10. 65%) visa vis the 50-50 portfolio of High-Tech and the Counter-Cyclical Co.

Marketing research RRL

Bin empathy is the term used by service strategist to ensure that kind of mechanical human interaction does not happen that employee who serve customers are responsive ,competent and empathic.. This is not means that they listen to the needs of people but also that they demonstrate empathy. Some though have taken this much further, they think of the numerous. Service are performance and people are the performers. From the customer perspective the people performing the service are the company. An incompetent insurance company .The component of this performance can as in the theatre. Be planned and designed to achieve any desired outcome and maintained over a long period of time. What the supplier see's as a set of operational procedures can be thought of as customers script. Have achieved success by intuitively applying dramatic technique to service business Service script is followed. It is that the quality of service will match the expectations of the buyers and intention of the sup plier so this script needs to be worked out carefully. Communicate the intention of the suppliaer. T seems, then that concept and paradigms do help employees who have to serve customers to demonstrate emotional empathy. A recognized framework put words concepts and engage to demonstrate emotional empathy When trying to plan service improvement, particularly in a large firm, it is possible to break the service often into recognizable components, or features which can be individually improved by doing so, suppliers can understand which aspect of their service is deficient when compared with customers expectation or competitor performance The attribute required by most customers were.Timeliness: the service is provided promptly Empathy; the organization understands the customers need . Assurance: technical correctness of the work Fees: providing value of money Tangibles: providing evidence hat the work is performed correctly Reliability the firm does what it says it will. Understanding lifetime value and customer profitability This important concept changes the perspective on a customer and prompts investment in customer care. Although he didn't give it this name .. The concept of lifetime value of customers suggests that firms know four things about a customer .The total revenue from all work in any given year The costs of service to those customers. Including proposal and prospecting cost The anticipated duration of the relationship of the customers to the firm . The profit in any given year and the total profit. Service Strategy, Like all other strategic issues. Quality of service is important to service is so important to service companies that an explicit service strategy should develop. Dublin 2008- Customers care is an aspect of service Businesses that contributes to growth in revenue and reputation.It has strategic implications for business growth which can. Product and Service Planning Product and service and planning includes activities such as test mar keting product and brand positioning: devising warranties: packaging determining product options, product features, product style, and product laity deleting old products, and providing for customer service. One of the most effective product and service planning techniques is test marketing test markets allow an organization to test alternative marketing plans and to forecast future sales of a new product.The environment and the modern management imperatives Bocce 2008-Paul licker refers to seven modern management imperatives (Licker,1997) Reach- this recognizes that businesses increasingly complete globally rather than locally or within national boundaries Reaction- customers are becoming ever more demanding and customers will make their view known and wish to have them expected Responsiveness- the process of turning an idea into a product or service that can be marketed in shortening- global reach means that there will be a greater problem ability that a competitor will be able to offer a good or service that more closely meets customers requirements.. Refinement-Refinement greater customer sophistication and specificity means that customers are more able than ever to distinguish fine between products and compare them with their needs and desires.. Reconfiguration- as a consequence of changing customers needs and preferences it may be necessary to re-engineer work patterns and organizational trustees change the structure of work and workflow from idea to product service. The Importance of service Quality.Customer care and service quality are important for several reason. Firstly service quality affects the attitudes of buyers toward repurchase. If they have a good experience they are more likely to buy again and if a poor experience. Some recent writers have even suggested customers reaction to service quality induce loyalty to the supplier. Which can be measured and managed. Service Quality and customer Care A Recent History Greasily 2008- Deponents of serv ice quality concept normally that an emphasis n customers care was not necessary before 20th century and only develop as consumerism grew. That is not the case though. For instance, British potter Josiah.It seems that difficulty occurred as distribution chains grew and marketing was functionalities in the mid 20th century. Competitive Strategies Thomson 2008- In findings its competitive edge within these five forces, porter suggests that a company can adopt one three strategies Differentiation The Differentiation strategy involves an attempt to distinguish the firm's product others in the industry. Companies that pursue a differentiation strategy typically need strong arresting abilities, a creative flair and reputation for leadership. In the form of customers loyalty that a new entrant into the market would have difficulty overcoming. Cost leadership. With A cost Leadership strategy, the organization aggressively seeks efficient facilities.Likewise, the low -cost producer is protec ted from powerful customers and supplier, because customers cannot find lower prices where the other buyer would have less slack for price negotiation with supplier. One on one Marketing Ford 2009- One on One marketing, as the name implies individual product with individual customers. This way of dealing with customers takes differentiated or niche marketing to the extreme. Successful one on one marketing requires detailed knowledge of customers Production Versus marketing Orientation The production and marketing orientation are complementary ways to look at business. Transactional View One view of exchange is the teach and every interaction with his a unique and independent event. Transactional Selling can be more adversarial cooperative.Price become a key consideration -neither the sales person nor customers is looking for much beyond the immediate transaction. Relational Selling Attracting new customers costs significantly more than reselling to current customer. Customer Loyalty Loyal customers are like money in the bank because their purchases provide revenue into the future customers loyalty is a function of two components. The second components of customers loyalty is intangible and based on emotion. Customers commitment is the bond between a customers and a sales firm that builds. Up overtime as a customer continues to have rewarding sales exchanges with a supplier Computing the Value off Customer.CRM implies that firm should mange different customer differently. While infrequent flyers may not see things the same way. The special treatment is worthwhile because platinum flyers provide a disproportionate amount of revenue based on their frequent flying behavior based on their frequent flying behavior. The sales and managing customers . Marketing strategy is one way firms go about creating value. Value is the individual's selective perception of the worth of some activity, object or idea. With C. R. M the salesperson does more than Just create sales. Ga ther important data about the customers and the market. Identify the types of data needed to give the customers better service

How to Keep Fit

I'm at a payphone trying to call home All of my change I spent on you Where have the times gone Baby it's all wrong, where are the plans we made for two? Yeah, I, I know it's hard to remember The people we used to be It's even harder to picture That you're not here next to me You say it's too late to make it But is it too late to try? And in our time that you wasted All of our bridges burned down I've wasted my nights You turned out the lights Now I'm paralyzed Still stuck in that time when we called it love But even the sun sets in paradise I'm at a payphone trying to call home All of my change I spent on you Where have the times goneBaby it's all wrong, where are the plans we made for two? If happy ever after did exist I would still be holding you like this All those fairytales are full of sh*t One more stupid love song I'll be sick You turned your back on tomorrow Cause you forgot yesterday I gave you my love to borrow But just gave it away You can't expect me to be fine I don't e xpect you to care I know I've said it before But all of our bridges burned down I've wasted my nights You turned out the lights Now I'm paralyzed Still stucked in that time when we called it love But even the sun sets in paradise I'm at a payphone trying to call homeAll of my change I spent on you Where have the times gone Baby it's all wrong, where are the plans we made for two? If happy ever after did exist I would still be holding you like this All those fairytales are full of sh*t One more stupid love song I'll be sick Now I'm at a payphone†¦ [Wiz Khalifa] Man work that sh*t I'll be out spending all this money while you sitting round Wondering why it wasn't you who came up from Suavemente , besame I'm ready to do whatever If you take me away Suavemente, besame I'll make you do whatever If I take you away [Nayer] I know the craving, and I can save it You've been so patientAnd I've been waiting, for you to take it And you can keep it Just say you need me, make me believe it I wanna go-o-o Can't let you go-o-o Hey mami, damelo otra vez Da-da-damelo otra vez I wanna go-o-o Can't let you go-o-o Hey mami, damelo otra vez Da-da-damelo otra vez [Chorus] Sua vemente, besame I'm ready to do whatever If you take me away Suavemente, besame I'll make you do whatever If I take you away Suavemente, besame I'm ready to do whatever If you take me away Suavemente, besame I'll make you do whatever If I take you away [Pitbull] T he way you moving (suave) Makes me say (suave) Go head baby (suave)Do it my babe (suave) The way you moving (suave) Makes me say (suave) Go head baby (suave) Do it my babe (suave) [Mohombi] Dame good morning So I can get it Let's just be honest, you are the finest Got you surrounded, baby surrender Don't make me hunt you, I know you want to Nayer Suave (Kiss Me) lyrics found on http://www. directlyr ics. com/nayer-suavem ente-lyrics. html I wanna go-o-o Can't let you go-o-o Hey mami, damelo otra vez Da-da-damelo otra vez I wanna go-o-o Can't let you go-o-o Hey mami, damelo otra vez Da-da-damelo otra vez [Chorus] Sua vemente, besame I'm ready to do whatever If you take me awaySuavemente, besame I'll make you do whatever If I take you away Suavemente, besame I'm ready to do whatever If you take me away Suavemente, besame I'll make you do whatever If I take you away [Pitbull] M ohombi, Nayer, Pitbull, FIRE This is revolution in music and we co-write it Yeah, just try us Double domination And everybody knows that me no liar Redone, have them sent a one million year And here's my wire Armandito, tremenda gente Tenemos siempre calle elegante y decente Esta noche vamos hacer el amor Ya tu sabe bebita suavemente I want you to lose your mind, lose control What before, lose it now Cause I know we doing bigYou gotta be ready to lose it up, dale! [Chorus] S uavemente, besame I'm ready to do whatever If you take me away Suavemente, besame I'll make you do whatever If I take you away Suavemente, besame I'm ready to do whatever If you tak e me away Suavemente, besame I'll make you do whatever If I take you away Me not working hard? Yea right picture that with a kodak And better yet, go to times square Take a picture of me with a kodak Took my life from negative to positive And I just want y'all know that And tonight, let's enjoy life Pitbull, Nayer, Ne-Yo [Ne-Yo / Nayer – Chorus] Tonight I will love love you tonightGive me everything tonight For all we know we might not get tomorrow Let's do it tonight I will love love you tonight Give me everything tonight For all we know we might not get tomorrow Lets do it tonight Don’t care what they say All the games they play Nothing is enough Till they handle love (Lets do it tonight) I want you tonight, I want you today I want you tonight Grab somebody sexy tell ‘em hey Give me everything tonight Give me everything tonight Give me everything tonight Give me everything tonight [Pitbull – Verse 1] Get busy tonight Cuz to more and more to do bad before and for Prius Desperate tonightI can make you my queen And make love to you eanless This is insane, the way the name growin’, money keep flowin’ Hustlers move aside, so I’m tiptoein, keep flowin’ I gotta locked up like Lindsay Lohan Put it on my life baby I can make you feel right baby I can’t promise tomorrow But I promise tonight Dale [Pitbull – Pre Chorus] Excuse me But I might drink a little bit more than I should tonight And I might take you home with me if I could tonight And I think you should let me cause I look good tonight And we might not get tomorrow [Ne-Yo / Nayer – Chorus] Tonight I will love love you tonight Give me everything tonightFor all we know we might not get tomorrow Lets do it tonight I will love love you tonight Give me everything tonight For all we know we might not get tomorrow Pitbull Give Me Everything lyrics found on http://www. directlyrics. com/pitbull-give-me-everything-lyrics. html Lets do it tonight Lets do it tonight Don’t care what they say All the games they play Nothing is enough Till they handle love (Lets do it tonight) I want you tonight, I want you today I want you tonight Grab somebody sexy tell ‘em hey Give me everything tonight Give me everything tonight Give me everything tonight Give me everything tonightGrab somebody sexy tell ‘em hey Give me everything tonight Give me everything tonight Give me everything tonight Give me everything tonight [Pitbull – Verse 2] Reach for the stars And if you don’t grab em, at least you’re on top of the world Think about it Cuz if you slip I’m gonna fall on top of you girl Put on ‘em ball when they sleep at the Macy’s And it ain’t no secret My granny’s from Cuba but I’m an American Tied over money like Seacrest Put it on my life baby I can make you feel right baby I can’t promise tomorrow But I promise tonight Dale [Pitbull – Pre Chorus] Excuse me But I might drink a little bit more than I should tonightAnd I might take you home with me if I could tonight And I think you should let me cause I look good tonight And we might not get tomorrow [Ne-Yo / Nayer – Chorus] Tonight I will love love you tonight Give me everything tonight For all we know we might not get tomorrow Let's do it tonight I will love love you tonight Give me everything tonight For all we know we might not get tomorrow Lets do it tonight Don’t care what they say All the games they play Nothing is enough Till they handle lo WE ARE EVER NEVER GETTING BACK TOGETHER I remember when we broke up The first time Saying this is it, I’ve had enough Because likeWe hadn’t seen each other in a month when you said you needed space what? Then you come round again and say Baby, I miss you and I swear I’m gonna change Trust me Remember how that lasted for a day I say I hate you We break up You call me I love you Ooooh We called it of f again last night But oooh This time I’m telling you, I’m telling you We are never ever ever getting back together We are never ever ever getting back together You go talk to your friends Talk to my friends Talk to me But we are never ever ever getting back together Like†¦ ever I’m really gonna miss you picking fights And me Falling for it screaming that I’m rightAnd you Would hide away and find your piece of mind With some Indie record that’s so much cooler than mine Ooooh You called me up again tonight But this time I’m telling you, I’m telling you We are never ever ever getting back together We are never ever ever getting back together You go talk to your friends Talk to my friends Talk to me (talk to me) But we are never ever ever getting back together Oooh (yeah) Oooh (yeah) Oooh (yeah) Oh oh oh I used to say that we were forever, ever And I used to to say Never say never (talking) Uhh So he calls me up and hes like ‘ I used to love you† I’m just.. I mean like this is exhausting you knowWe are never getting back together Like ever We are never ever ever getting back together We are never ever ever getting back together You go talk to your friends Talk to my friends Talk to me (talk to me) But we are never ever ever ever getting back together We oooh We oooh You go talk to your friends Talk to my friends Talk to me but we are never ever ever ever getting back together WHISLTE Can you blow my whistle baby, whistle baby Let me know Girl I'm gonna show you how to do it And we start real slow You just put your lips together And you come real close Can you blow my whistle baby, whistle babyHere we go I'm betting you like bebop And i'm betting you love creep mode And i'm betting you like girls that give love to girls And stroke your little ego I bet i'm guilty your honor But that's how we live in my genre When in hell I pay rottweiler There's only one flo, and one rida I'm a damn shame Orde r more champagne, pull it down hellstream Tryna put it on ya Bet your lips spin back around corner Slow it down baby take a little longer Can you blow my whistle baby, whistle baby Let me know Girl I'm gonna show you how to do it And we start real slow You just put your lips together And you come real closeCan you blow my whistle baby, whistle baby Here we go Whistle baby, whistle baby, Whistle baby, whistle baby It's like everywhere I go My whistle ready to blow Shorty don't leave a note She can get any by the low Permission not approved It's okay, it's under control Show me soprano, cause girl you can handle Baby we start snagging, you come in part clothes Girl i'm losing wing, my bucatti the same road Show me your perfect pitch, You got it my banjo Talented with your lips, like you blew out candles So amusing, now you can make a whistle with the music Hope you ain't got no issue, you can do it Give me the perfect picture, never lose itCan you blow my whistle baby, whistle baby Le t me know Girl I'm gonna show you how to do it And we start real slow You just put your lips together And you come real close Can you blow my whistle baby, whistle baby Here we go Whistle baby, whistle baby, Whistle baby, whistle baby Go girl you can work it Let me see your whistle while you work it I'mma lay it back, don't stop it Cause I love it how you drop it, drop it, drop it, on me Now, shorty let that whistle blow Yeah, baby let that whistle blow Can you blow my whistle baby, whistle baby Let me know Girl I'm gonna show you how to do it And we start real slowYou just put your lips together And you come real close Can you blow my whistle baby, whistle baby Here we go Whistle baby, whistle baby, Whistle baby, whistle baby ZERO GRAVITY Tell me what you did to me Just air underneath feet Didn't even notice we were miles above the ground I'm not afraid of heights We crashed into the sky Didn't know that I could feel the way that I do now I'm not asking for an explanation All I kno w is that you take me away And you show me how to fly Nothing brings me down When you're around It's like zero gravity The world just disappears When you're here It's zero gravity When things get messed upI lift my head up And I get lost in the clouds There's no sense of time with you and i It's zero gravity Ohhh Ohhh no no no Hey ooohhh The ages fade away Till there's no more shades of gray You only have to whisper anything at all You opened up my eyes You turn my lows to high And that's the only way that I know how to fall Not gonna analyze or try to fight it Don't even care if it makes no sense at all ‘Cause with you I can fly Nothing brings me down When you're around It's like zero gravity The world just disappears When you're here It's zero gravity When things get messed up I lift my head up And I get lost in the cloudsThere's no sense of time with you around It's zero gravity As Long As You Love Me Dong gop: Ken Ho As long as you love me [x3] [Verse 1] I'm under pressure , Seven billion people in the world trying to fit in Keep it together, Smile on your face even though your heart is frowning But hey now, you know girl, We both know it's a cruel world But I will take my chances [Chorus] As long as you love me We could be starving, we could be homeless, we could be broke As long as you love me I'll be your platinum, I'll be your silver, I'll be your gold As long as you love, love, love, love me As long as you love, love, love, love me [Verse 2]I'll be your soldier, fighting every second of the day for your dreams girl I'll be your whole world You can be my Destiny's Child on the scene girl So don't stress, don't cry, we don't need no wings to fly Just take my hand [Bridge] As you love me we could be starving, we could be homeless, we could be broke As long as you love me I'll be your platinum, I'll be your silver, I'll be your gold As long as you love, love, love, love me As long as you love, love, love, love me [Big Sean] I don't know if this makes sense, but you're my hallelujah Give me a time and place, and I'll rendezvous, and I'll fly you to it, I'll beat ya thereGirl you know I got you Us, trust†¦ A couple of things I can't spell without you Now we are on top of the world, 'cause that's just how we do Used to tell me sky's the limit, now the sky's our point of view Man now we stepping out like wow (Oh God) Camera's pointed shoot, Ask me what's my best side, I stand back and point at you You, you the one that I argue with, I feel like I need a new girl to be bothered with, But the grass ain't always greener on the other side, It's green where you water it So I know we got issues baby true true true But I'd rather work on this with you Than to go ahead and start with someone newAs long as you love me [Chorus] As you love me We could be starving, we could be homeless, we could be broke As long as you love me I'll be your platinum, I'll be your silver, I'll be your gold As long as you love, love, love, love me As long a s you love, love, love, love me As long as you love, love, love, love me As long as you love, love, love, love me As long as you love me MOVE LIKE JAGGER Just shoot for the stars If it feels right And in for my heart If you feel like Can take me away, and make it okay I swear I'll behave You wanted control Sure we waited I put on a show Now I make it You say I'm a kid My ego is bigI don't give a sh*t And it goes like this [Chorus] Take me by the tongue And I'll know you Kiss me till you're drunk And I'll show you You want the moves like jagger I got the moves like jagger I got the mooooooves†¦ like jagger I don't even try to control you Look into my eyes and I'll own you You with the moves like jagger I got the moves like jagger I got the mooooooves†¦ like jagger [Verse 2] Baby it's hard And it feel like you're broken and scarred Nothing feels right But when you're with me I make you believe That I've got the key So get in the car We can ride it Wherever you want Get insid e it And you want to stirBut I'm shifting gears I'll take it from here And it goes like this [Chorus] Take me by the tongue And I'll know you Kiss til you're drunk And I'll show you You want the moves like jagger I got the moves like jagger I got the mooooooves†¦ like jagger I don't even try to control you Look into my eyes and I'll own you You with the moves like jagger I got the moves like jagger I got the mooooooves†¦ like jagger [Bridge] You want to know how to make me smile Take control, own me just for the night But if I share my secret You gonna have to keep it Nobody else can see this So watch and learn I won't show you twiceHead to toe, ooh baby, roll me right But if I share my secret You gonna have to keep it Nobody else can see this And it goes like this [Chorus] Take me by the tongue And I'll know you Kiss til you're drunk And I'll show you You want the moves like jagger I got the moves like jagger I got the mooooooves†¦ like jagger I don't even try to con trol you Look into my eyes and I'll own you You with the moves like jagger I got the moves like jagger I got the mooooooves†¦ like jagger GOOD FEELLING Oh, oh, oh, oh, oh, sometimes I get a good feeling, yeah I get a feeling that I never never never never had before, no no I get a good feeling, yeahOh oh, sometimes I get a good feeling, yeah I get a feeling that I never never never never had before, no no I get a good feeling, yeah Yes I can, doubt that I leave, I'm running with this plan Pull me, grab me, crabs in the bucket can't have me I'll be the president one day January first, oh, you like that gossip Like you the one drinking what God sip dot com Now I gotta work with your tongue How many rolling stones you want Yeah I got a brand new spirit, Speak it and it's done Woke up on the side of the bed like I won Talk like a winner, my chest to that sun G5 dealer, US to Taiwan I hope you say that, I wanna play backMama knew I was a needle in a hay stack A Bugatti boy, plus May bach I got a feeling it's a wrap, ASAP Oh, oh, sometimes I get a good feeling, yeah I get a feeling that I never never never never had before, no no I get a good feeling, yeah Oh oh, sometimes I get a good feeling, yeah I get a feeling that I never never never never had before, no no I get a good feeling, yeah The mountain top, walk on water I got power, feel so royal One second, I'ma strike oil Diamond, platinum, no more for you Gotta drill a land, never giving in Giving up's not an option, gotta get it in Witness I got the heart of 20 menNo fear, go to sleep in the lion's den That flow, that spark, that crown You looking at the king of the jungle now Stronger than ever can't hold me down A hundred miles feelin' from the picture smile Straight game face, it's game day See me running through the crowd full of melee No trick plays, I'm Bill Gates, Take a genius to understand me Oh, oh, sometimes I get WILD ONES Flo Rida ft. Sia . . . Hey I heard you were a wild one Oooh If I took you home It'd be a home run Show me how you'll do I want to shut down the club With you Hey I heard you like the wild ones Oooh [Flo Rida] I like crazy, foolish, stupidParty going wild, fist pumping Music, I might lose it Blast to the roof, that's how we do'z it I don't care the night, she don't care we like Almost dared the right five Ready to get popping, ain't no surprise Take me so high, jumping no doubts Surfing the crowd Oooh Said I gotta be the man When they heading my van, might check one too Shut them down in the club while the playboy does it, and y'all get lose lose After bottle, we all get bit and again tomorrow Gotta break loose cause that's the motto Club shuts down, I heard you're super models [Sia – Hook] Hey I heard you were a wild one Oooh If I took you homeIt'd be a home run Show me how you'll do I want shut down the club With you Hey I heard you like the wild ones Oooh [Flo Rida] Party rocker, foot show stopper More shampoo Never one, club popper Got a hangov er like too much vodka Can't see me with ten binoculars So cool No doubt by the end of the night Got the clothes coming off Til I make that move Somehow, someway, gotta raise the roof, roof All black shades when the sun come through Oh, it's on like everything goes Round up baby til the freaky show What happens to that body, it's a private show Stays right here, private show I like em untamed, don't tell me how painTell them this, bottoms up with the champagne My life, coming harder than we hit play Do you busy with the bail, were you insane [Sia – Hook] Hey I heard you were a wil THE ONE THAT GOT AWAY Summer after high school when we first met We make out in your Mustang to Radiohead And on my 18th Birthday We got matching tattoos Used to steal your parents' liquor And climb to the roof Talk about our future like we had a clue Never planned that one day I'd be losing you In another life I would be your girl We keep all our promises Be us against the world In another life I w ould make you stay So I don't have to sayYou were the one that got away The one that got away I was June and you were my Johnny Cash Never one without the other we made a pact Sometimes when I miss you I put those records on Someone said you had your tattoo removed Saw you downtown singing the Blues Its time to face the music I'm no longer your muse And in another life I would be your girl We keep all our promises Be us against the world In another life I would make you stay So I don't have to say You were the one that got away The one that got away The o-o-o-o-o-one [x3] The one that got away [Bridge:] All this money can't buy me a time machine (Nooooo)Can't replace you with a million rings (Nooooo) I shoulda told you what you meant to me (Woooooow) Cause now I pay the price In another life I would be your girl We keep all our promises Be us against the world In another life I would make you stay So I don't have to say You were the one that got away The one that got away The o-o-o- o-o-one [x3] In another life I would make you stay So I don't have to say You were the one that got away The one that got away GIVE ME A HEART BREAK The day I first met you You told me you never fall in love But now that I get you I know fear is what it really was Now here we are, so closeYet so far, haven't I passed the test When will you realize Baby, I'm not like the rest Don't wanna break your heart I wanna give your heart a break I know you're scared it's wrong Like you might make a mistake There's just one life to live And there's no time to wait, to wait So let me give your heart a break Give your heart a break Let me give your heart a break Give your heart a break Oh, yeah yeah A Sunday, you went home alone There were tears in your eyes I called your cell phone, my love But you did not reply The world is ours, if you want it We can take it, if you just take my hand There's no turning back nowBaby, try to understand Don't wanna break your heart I wanna give your heart a break I know you're scared it's wrong Like you might make a mistake There's just one life to live And there's no time to wait, to wait So let me give your heart a break Give your heart a break Let me give your heart a break Your heart a break There's just so much you can take Give your heart a break Let me give your heart a break Your heart a break Oh, yeah yeah When your lips are on my lips And our hearts beat as one But you slip right out of my fingertips Every time you run Don't wanna break your heart I wanna give your heart a breakI know you're scared it's wrong Like you might make a mistake There's just one life to live And there's no time to wait, to wait So let me give your heart a break Cuz you've been hurt before I can see it in your eyes You try to smile it away Some things you can't disguise I don't wanna break your heart Baby, I can ease the ache, the ache So, let me give your heart a break Give your heart a break Let me give your heart a break Your heart a break There's just so much you can take Give your heart a break Let me give your heart a break Your heart a break The day I first met you You told me you never fall in love

The Benefits and the Drawbacks of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) Research Paper

The Benefits and the Drawbacks of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) Telephony - Research Paper Example In simple terms, VoIP can be considered to have similar function like that of telephone but this process has many extended features. The project will broadly analyze the importance of this technology and all those areas where it can be widely implemented and applied. The study will also comprise of the scope of development of this particular technology and the extent to which this technology can be made popular and relied upon. Furthermore, all those broad measures will also be highlighted that can be implemented for making widespread application of the technology. Beside the importance, the problems that will be faced while identifying the measures along with the drawbacks associated with this technology will also be listed and discussed upon. The study will also encompass the various issues related with the security and privacy concern associated with the use of VoIP. Additionally, it will also highlight the other essential features of VoIP reflecting its efficiency in terms of cos t of the technology, accuracy, quality, and timely delivery of services among other factors. THESIS STATEMENT The main aim of the study would be to analyze all those broad factors that can prove to provide opportunities of growth for Voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP) technology. ... VIEW Identifying the Network System Used In the VoIP Telephony According to Hiwasaki, Ohmuro, Mori, Kurihara and Kataoka (2006), a very high tech networking process is followed in the process of VoIP. The networking system allows uninterrupted communication process both in audio and video modes. The network codifies the signals in such a way that all round clarity is maintained in the overall communication process (Hiwasaki, Ohmuro, Mori, Kurihara and Kataoka 1-7). Defining the Importance of VoIP Telephony for the Business World As per Garrie and Wong (2007), there are various factors that can be considered for determining the importance of VoIP telephony for the business world. Accordingly, if the voice that transmits through the networks is regulated properly over the internet protocols then it would be able to create a positive impact in the overall voice process. Furthermore, if the voice is processed and transmitted from one channel to another in a more precise form then it woul d provide great benefits and this efficiency can also be utilized in a business and can prove to derive much better results. It can be strongly admitted that applicability of VoIP telephony is widely gaining popularity in the business segment as an effective modes of communication. It has been ascertained that VoIP telephony offers quick dissemination audio-visual messages relatively at lower costs and at higher speed (Garrie and Wong 550-574). Evaluating the Benefits of VoIP Telephony in the Global Communication Kerner (2005) suggested that the use of VoIP is becoming widespread and is continuously being utilized in the overall market. It has been argued that the application of VoIP can be made even more efficient if more stress is laid upon providing end to end results. It has been

Television advertisement vs social media Article

Television advertisement vs social media - Article Example Television marketing is one of the most popular and widely used modes of marketing all over the world including the MENA region. Companies place ads on television channels that are brought on air during popular television programmes so that the majority of people can view them. â€Å"Many businesses find a well-crafted television advertisement gives them an effective way to appeal to their target market† (Wagner n.d.). The normal length of television commercials ranges from 15 seconds to 2 to 3 minutes. Television ads are also played in the form of paid advertisements. Moreover, a direct response strategy is also being used widely in order to get instant feedback redundant from the viewers. Advertisements for direct response can run up to 15 to 30 minutes, and at the end of those advertisements a telephone number is shown to viewers in order for them to call the company and place the order. Along with television marketing, another form of marketing that is rapidly gaining fame and success in the MENA region is social media marketing. Social networking websites are playing a valuable role as effective marketing channels for all types of companies whether large, small, or medium-sized (Kelly 2013). With the advent of the social media as an effective network for marketing and advertising, companies started using social networking websites for achieving better response, as well as to provide customer service through enhanced level of interaction with the customers of the company (Richardson, Gosnay and Carroll 2010, p. 58). â€Å"The main goal of social media marketing is to ensure high participation of target audience in campaigns and content shared by the company† (Rajarammohan 2012). Social media is considered to be a complementary mix of all other advertising and marketing efforts (Evans 2012). It also plays an effective role in marketing and advertising of products. According

Budgetary Control in the Organization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 4

Budgetary Control in the Organization - Essay Example In the current world, organizations use budgets as a tool for to determine and measure their goals and objectives (Gervais, Heaton & Terrance 2011). In addition, it is used as a tool to measure capacity and abilities of management who set targets for the organization. The budget allows executives of the organization to set quantitative objectives and provides financial interpretation to these objectives (Bennouna, Geoffrey & Marchant 2010). Therefore, organizations use budgetary control techniques to plan, monitor, and coordinate the distribution of value money to the respective departments within their structure (Kaplan & Norton 2006). This is one of the major reasons that the budgetary control is one of the significant elements in performance management as the budgetary control allows an organization to determine its performance in the sustaining market (Bennouna, Geoffrey & Marchant 2010). In addition, it allows management to evaluate the relationship between corporations and capi tal markets (Bennouna, Geoffrey & Marchant 2010). This document highlights the significance of budgetary control techniques; it further analyzes budgetary control and its limitation in the capital market. Â  The organization operates in various segments, classified on the basis of its functions and programs (Bennouna, Geoffrey & Marchant 2010). These segments have unique and distinct objectives according to their performance and tasks (Bhimani & Bromwic 2009). Organizations make use of Budget techniques to strategically plan their actions to structure the organization and to sustain motivation of their employees to attain objectives of the business (Stedry 2011). Performance management is related to the activities undertaken by management to ensure that goals of the organization are effectively and efficiently met (Gervais, Heaton & Terrance 2011).

China. Economic Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

China. Economic Analysis - Essay Example Amongst the top three economies of the world, and just after United States has more stable condition after the international recession as the world recovers from it five years after the biggest slump hit the entire globe. The trade partners stretch far and wide and its industries are strong enough to manufacture all kinds of stuff, with specialization in electronics in modern times. China has the largest population bench in the world, and thereby resources are needed to accommodate the citizens. Energy sources are a serious concern, for this purpose the government in recent years has started focusing on energy sources besides the conventional sources. Nuclear power plants and other renewable energy sources are in line for this purpose. Only recently did China become the world’s largest exporter to all parts of the world. This despite being the recession that has hit the entire world with its storm. While the period from 2008 to 2011 marked severe lows in the world market, chin a has shown better performances in terms of their economic growth, their exports and other variables. They have devised policies that ensure minimizing the deficit and losses due to recession. Though it would be a biased statement to say that it was not hit by the recession, it’s wise and safe to say that the policies crafted by Chinese helped resisting the global recession in a better and organized manner. Government has contributed in the field of state owned organizations and with its efforts has aimed at revamping the entire structure to strengthen this sector. In recent times, the G.D.P growth has come down slightly to a single digit value (Mundi). This has to do with the international recession, the domestic demand increase and various other factors. Still considering the nature of recession all over, this is considerable resistance with regard to the G.D.P decrease. Down slide on Chinese graph of economy and G.D.P will definitely effect the other pats of the world and their economies since its economy, exports and investments are spread are spread all over in the local markets(The Economist Online). Chinese exports find a large market in Europe and considering the inter dependence, with Europe still strangled deep into the economic crisis and with Euro issues looming dark over their markets, being a global player China is, it is bound to feel the heat from the Europe side and this could impact its G.D.P and overall economy’s progress. China’s success can be attributed to its separation of currencies on local and international front. Without any surprise people are advocating this form of approach for the euro crisis as well. After the policy change from 1980s, China’s policy depended largely on the private sector organizations, however having stabilized that pole, their forte in recent times has been the governmental organizations. They have regularized them, brought about necessary changes and provided them with the necessar y security that would be demanded for the investors who are willing to invest in the state owned organizations. This is aided by the incentives attached to the investments in the government sector by both the local investors and the foreign investors. Having identified the achievements and the pluses that are there, there are obstacles at the same time that are being faced by the Chinese government and economy. One of these is the small domestic demand; this has largely got to do with the low capita income in domestic. The per capita income zone has the margin for improvement as it is relatively lower compared to other parts of the world and especially those countries that are in the rank and have some say and command over the international markets. Other problems and challenges faced include the handling of the large number of immigrants

Case study-essay Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Case study- - Essay Example This leads to the production of the products to the markets while they target a special group. For example, the company is aware that the sick or the people who have health ailments take organic tea makes them come up the organic and maintain the company produce more tea making the group depend on them an remain as costumers. The company also supplied the products to hotels, to learning institution and the shops that market tea. The marketing director explains that the company is much better in the sense that the regulars stick with their products each time they would buy. The Numi tea organization treats the customers with a better option therefore; they had to develop a new market that would target another group of customers. The marketing manager of the group explains that the company’s major customer are the youth since the company mostly sold the products at the learning institutions and the prices were cheaper that all the students could afford. The management of the com pany is trying to come up with ways that they would come up with the best skill that will convince the people from different age groups such as the old. The tea product from Numi explains why the people keep asking at the coffee shops and the restaurants. This happens after a person tastes the tea in the sense that they go ahead and asks where they can obtain the tea or how to come up with tea. The advertisement of the company is all over Facebook and Twitter making the product grows fast across United States of America. Numi’s relationship with its customers The relationship with the producers in Numi is dismal in that they need to come up with a better way of relating the two parties. To Numi the consumers are better than the producers are because the concern on the producers is. Marketing relate well with the consumers since they have to convince the consumers on how to purchase the products frequently and have to buy their tea but not from another company. The company goe s miles ahead to advertise through various available means such as the internet and through the restaurants and coffee shops or the cafes. The producers’ collies with the company and the achievement of the company will eventually lead to the achievement of the producers. Technology and its relations with customers The company has adapted the current technology since they look up for better ways that will attract more customers to adept to their product. Currently Numi uses the tea products and the necessary skill that will lead to development of the tea company. For example, Numi takes advantage of the numerous populations that access the internet. This stimulates the management of the company in the sense that the company advertises its product online and the information get across numerous people. The company has taken advantage of the social media on the internet such as Twitter and Facebook. The company uses these social sites for the advertisements since numerous people across the world access them frequently. However, the management needs to come up with better ideas such as the creating of free posters and post them online or back their services by introducing other services such as the free deliveries. This service will encourage even customers from far countries or states to access the products. Suggestion on methods of data collection Several data collection methods For easy running

Financial control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Financial control - Essay Example These standards can at best be called current standards, as they have taken into account only the current four months conditions only. Sales activities have been started with a level 500 unit of product for first two months, which rose by 100 units of products in next two in each month. Accordingly the level of activity is assumed to be rising at the rate of 100 units of product after every two months performance. Thus level of activity is currently set at production rate increasing by 100 units after every two months till the activity reaches the optimum level of the use of total capacity over a period of time, say between one to two years. Being variable in nature, the cost per unit of the product has been set $ 30.This is based on the fact that products consumes one hour of labour time for producing one unit of product. As the wages rate for the type of production labour involved is $ 30 per, the current direct labour cost standard is set at $30 per unit of product. Salary of administrative staff has been found to be costing at the rate $10 per unit of product. General expenses after apportioning on basis of total production during a period of one month have found to be costing $8 per unit of the product. Depreciation being treated as fixed overhead has been calculated on basis of ‘units of production’ over the useful life of assets involved. This has given a result of $2 per unit of product and thus that is the standard set for the current period. The gross margin (i.e. contribution) has given a performance of 60% during the first four months of the performance. It appears to be a little very optimistic. As the production capacity has not been settled up to an optimum level, there will be major fluctuations in the gross margin or contribution till it finally settles at its normal level at the optimum level of production. A full year of performance may put a proper light in this respect. The

Management by Objectives Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Management by Objectives - Essay Example By setting objectives and completing them - the employee can enjoy a sense of accomplishment. Assuming a company has clearly conveyed a mission to be an embraceable vision for all employees from top to bottom; setting objectives with the employee and then letting the employee execute them gives the employee a feeling of team work and belonging. Peter Drucker first addressed MBO in 1954 in his book The practice of Management He later readdressed MBO in updated editions, including, Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices originally published 1973. In the book in Drucker is always careful to stress the human element of management. (Drucker, 21973) He stresses the combined power of teamwork when strengths are emphasized. We are all managed in some way, whether it is by our parents, our jobs or our rules of society. A concrete example of management by objectives is from the company where I am employed. The company requires the manager to sit down with each associate and set goals for the year. Some goals are individually driven and some are business driven. For example, an individual goal might be to learn (or job shadow) a different position in the company, whereas a company goal might be to complete audit reports within a 180 days of the start. The individual goal is set by the associate; sometimes with the coaching of the manager, if needed.

Humanistic School of Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Humanistic School of Psychology - Essay Example Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950s, the time marked by profound social changes, the onset of global movements, emergence of new scholarly paradigms questioning the traditional empiricist and positivist conceptions of the world and human being, the change in physics which "discarded the requirement of total objectivity and the complete separation of external world from observer", etc (Schultz and Schultz, 2004: 483). In psychology, these transformations took shape of the rise of cognitive and humanistic perspectives that actively criticized psychoanalytic theory for portraying people as being directed only by their unconscious wishes and irrational forces. They also did not support the behaviorist school because the latter viewed people as biological robots "who are mechanically programmed by the conditioning force of external stimuli" (Vander Zanden, 1993: 45). These principles rely almost exclusively on the research and findings of two American psychologists Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, the brightest and most proliferate representatives of humanistic psychology. The essence of Maslow's theory is the hierarchy of needs and "self-actualization" - development and self-improvement of personality. Human have a complex hierarchy of needs that emerge at the moment of birth (food, drink, shelter) and continue throughout life (social security, status attainment, etc). Visually, these needs are organized in the form of the famous 'pyramid of need' with physiological needs being at the bottom and self-actualization being at the top. Maslow believes that the lower layers of needs must be fulfilled first before passing over to the upper layers. However, it does not mean that each person must follow the same template: fulfilling the non-basic needs depends entirely upon the individual. Musicians must make music, artists must paint, and poets must write if they want to be ultimately at peace with themselves. What humans can be, they must be: they must be true to their own nature and if they are it is called "self-actualization". This category is less a nee d than a final development stage for the person (Maslow, 1987). Poor amenability to being quantified and lack of predictive power is perhaps the most often mentioned drawback of Maslow's model: it is a general idea or shape that is descriptive and represents a great analytic interest. Maslow's theory is also weak on the exact points of transition. Thus, for illustrative purposes one may speak of someone's needs being 85% satisfied, but there is absolutely no possibility available to quantify the

Through dramatic methods In The Crucible Essay Example for Free

Through dramatic methods In The Crucible Essay Is truth reliable? Everybody has different perceptions of truth and what is represented by it. Truth is different where ever you go. Peoples version of truth is never fully correct. Miller uses The Crucible to express his own views on what was happening in America at the time-McCarthyism he uses John Proctor, as he is interested in the person who doesnt allow him to be caught up in hysteria but thinks for himself and stands up for his values against all odds. Miller uses the Salem witch-hunt to put forward his views on McCarthyism-the hunting down and prosecuting of any Americans who were thought to have taken part in anti-capitalism. Miller himself was brought before the committee led by Joseph McCarthy. Miller saw the public confessions required by the committee, as parallels with the naming of names at Salem in 1692. History is evidence from people views on past events; again this cannot be taken for pure truth. Does this mean the truth can never be found or be totally correct? Arthur Miller wrote The Crucible from evidence in history that he collected; elements of the truth have been changed. Arthur Miller uses five main methods to represent truth; these are Imagery, Dialogue, Dramatic Irony, Staging or Setting and Character profile. Dialogue is a main method that can be used to show how truth is represented as the play is written with very little in the way of movements and directors have the dialogue to base their plays around. Dialogue has many different ways of showing who has the highest status and most control of a conversation. When acted out these can include, accent, age, tone of voice and pitch for example. But in a play methods such as topic shift, conversation control, adjacency pairs, turn taking, silence or hesitation are used. In The Crucible Abagail controls a conversation between her and Betty about what happened. Abagail shouts Shut it! Now shut it! Abagail takes control of the conversation to stop Betty from saying what she is to change the topic of conversation, this is called topic shifts. This represents truth as Abagail and Betty are talking about the truth but Abagail wants to move away from it. This method give the audience a clear view of who is in the wrong and more information on the characters on stage. Betty represents the truth as she is trying to let it out and tell everyone what actually happened and Abagail is opposing the truth; this is how Abagail is portrayed throughout most of the play. Her control of conversation is a great method of dialogue that gives her power and is what eventually allows her to escape death. When the character is speaking the audience know if he or she is telling the truth as they may have seen previous scenes that told them more information. This way the dialogue used can be used to cover up the truth using the dialogue techniques. Another method used to convey truth via dialogue is adjacency pairs. Adjacency means next to A question suggests the next turn will be an answer, a greeting suggests the next turn will be a greeting. Many things people say could have several meanings; the next turn shows what the people take it to mean, for now. So if someone insults you, and you respond Thank you, you are taking the insult as a compliment. This is used a lot to dismiss an idea or statement given to a character. For instance Proctor says, We never touched, Abby Abagail follows with Aye, but we did. Proctor follows with Aye, but we did not. Proctors immediate dismissal is a shock for Abagail as it was not the expected response. The word Aye is a positive response that substitutes yes. At the end of the response the word not is used this is negative and quickly changes the conversation from agreeing ang positive to negative and dissagreening. This is used to shock the audience and Abagail on stage. It conveys truth as it does not agree with Abagail and so the audience know one of them is not telling the truth, they either did or they did not touch. From the previous scenes they realise Proc Imagery is used a lot in the play. It is used on natural and items with symbols like the church. Imagery is good as it allows the audience to get a view of the truth and more of an understanding of what is going on. The imagery used in The Crucible is mostly natural objects such as stone, light and fire, this could be because og the purtinsm and they belived in living naturaly. Hard as rock and Where I stone give images of a stone. Stone is linked to the truth because it is a natural strong material. It is tough on the outside and hard to break into. Truth can be hard to reach or get the exact truth and so is linked to rock. Another way rock is linked to truth is that they are made in a cycle. Truth is changed in a cycle or a ring of people as people give others their opinion of the truth and rocks are made in a cycle and are changed during it. Another image related to truth is a book once a book has been written and finished it cannot be tampered with. It can be written over like the lies made up by people hiding the truth. The book as it was meant to be written can never be changed just like the truth. The cover of a book is strong and holds the book together along with its spine. Again this is like the truth it is held together and made by what has happened. The light of God is in him, this shows he is pure not evil and the audience can imagine it. If God is in you, you cannot be evil. Wheel inside Wheel this is meant as an image of Salem, the people of Salem influence or move others inside Salem to do things they wouldnt normally do. This shows truth, as it is Salem as a whole pushing people on. Dramatic Irony is used in The Crucible. The audience see what is going on and then they see the characters lie about what the audience know is true. The audience see Paris praying next to Betty and the audience realise something is wrong, later on Paris denies any thing has happened and the audience know this is not true. Dramatic Irony represents truth and is used when the audience know some of the characters are lying to others. This makes the audience feel more powerful and raises the level of excitement and suspense. The audiences learn more about a character and their personality. They gain a personal view on whether to believe what they say later or not to. This shows truth very well as the audience know exactly who knows what information and who is truthful and who is not. Dramatic irony shows the truth on which characters trust which and who they are willing to tell the truth. When characters have information that others dont, they feel they have more power and so decide to different things with the power. Titubas lies reveal the truth, Tituba pretended to be possessed in a way to get back at Paris. Tituba says He says Mr Parris must be kill! Mr Parris no goodly man, Mr Parris mean man and no gentle man,Parris is the victim of dramatic irony. The audience are against Parris because of the character summary, it was heavily biased against Parris.

Music Therapy for Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) | Research

Music Therapy for Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) | Research CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION â€Å" Music gives a soul to the universe, wings to the mind,  flight to the imagination and life to everything† Plato Head injury (Traumatic Brain Injury) is defined as an insult to the brain, not a degenerative or cognitive nature, but caused by an external physical force, that produces a diminished or altered level of consciousness which results in impairment in cognitive abilities or physical functioning. (American Head Injury Foundation, 2012) Traumatic Brain Injury can result when the head suddenly and violently hits an object, or when an object pierces the skull and enters brain tissue. Approximately half of severely head injured patients will need surgery to remove or repair hematomas or contusions. Some common disabilities include problems with cognition, sensory processing, communication and problems with behaviour or mental health. (Newman, 2003) Road Traffic Accidents (RTA) are the sixth leading cause of death in India with a greater share of hospitalizations, deaths, disabilities and socioeconomic losses in young and middle-age populations. It also place a huge burden on the health sector in terms of pre hospital, acute care and rehabilitation. (WHO, 2012) Almost 10 million head injuries occur annually, about 20 % of which are serious enough to cause brain damage. Among men under 35 years, accidents, usually motor vehicle collisions are the chief cause of death and > 70 % of these involve head injury. Furthermore, minor head injuries are so common that almost all physicians will be called upon to provide immediate care or to see patients who are suffering from various sequels. (Allan H Ropper, 2011) The advancement in medicine and technology has increased the survival rate of patients with head injury and many of them do have various disabilities. When injury is severe or even minor it lead to large number of behavioural and cognitive problems with the physical disability. Each patient represents a unique disabilities which include physical, visual, cognitive and behavioural abnormalities. Sensory Stimulation Programmes are usually started in the Neuro Intensive Care Unit and should be continued in rehabilitation. This may include tactile, olfactory, visual, gustatory and auditory. (Ellen Barkers, 2002) Music is a magical medium and a very powerful tool. Music can delight all the senses and inspire every fiber of being. Its multidimensional nature touches the individual’s physical and psychological levels of consciousness suggested that music exerts its effect through the entertainment of body rhythms. (Wilson Parsons, 2002) Music has been used as a healing force for centuries. Appolo is god of music and of medicine. Aesculapius was said to cure diseases of the mind by using song and music. Aristotle taught that music affects the soul and described music as a force that purified the emotions. Aulus cornelius advocated the sound of cymbals and running water for the treatment of mental disorders. Music therapy goes back to biblical times, when David played the harp to rid King Saul of a bad spirit. In the thirteenth century, Arab hospitals contained music-rooms for the benefit of the patients. Music therapy began in the aftermath of World Wars I and II. Musicians would travel to hospitals, particularly in the United Kingdom and play music for soldiers suffering from war-related emotional and physical trauma. (Lee Mathew, 2000) Neurologic Music Therapy (NMT) is the therapeutic application of music to treat cognitive, sensory and motor dysfunctions that come from neurologic impairment. The treatment is based on stimulating music perception and production parts in the human brain. The targeted neurologic disorders like Stroke, Autism, Huntington’s disease, Cerebral palsy, Alzheimer’s disease and other neurological disease affecting cognition, movement and communication (mild , moderate or severe traumatic brain injury). (Blosser DePompei, 1994) Need for the Study: Everyday men, women and children suffer head injuries. A fall, a car accident, a sports injury – these everyday injuries can range in severity from concussion to coma. Traumatic Brain Injury can be fatal or, in survivors, can produce persistent problems that significantly affect the livelihood and well-being of millions around the globe. Ninety-five percent of trauma victims in India do not receive optimal care during the â€Å"golden hour† period after an injury is sustained, in which health care administration is critical. (Indian Head Injury Foundation, 2010) The annual global incidence rates of traumatic brain injury ranges from 91 per 100,000 populations to 546 per 100,000. The traumatic brain injury constitutes 70–90% of all head injuries, with rates of hospital treatment ranging from 100 to 300 per 100,000 populations per annum. This high variability in incidence is due to sampling of population ranging from only hospitalized patients to all the patients who visit emergency department. A large number of cases are not treated at hospitals; the actual rate is possibly in excess of 600 per 100,000 cases. There is bimodal distribution of brain injury with peaks at age group 15–24 years and after 65 years. (Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010) The annual national incidence rates among 28 states of India, the mortality rate per million population due to road traffic accident. A varied from as low as 20 in Nagaland to as high as 216 in Tamil Nadu. States with rapid and high growth in motorization had a higher number of deaths. Nearly half of the total road fatalities were in the 4 states of India, Tamil Nadu (14.5%), Andhra Pradesh (11.4%), Maharashtra (11.1%) and Uttar Pradesh (10.2%). (National Crime Records Bueareau, 2005) A combination of neurological and neuropsychological deficits seems to contribute to residual handicap in patients with head injury. Neurological deficits include motor deficit (55%), ataxia (49%) and anosmia (46 %) along with memory impairment, poor initiativeness and increasing irritability. Among them very least could return to their occupation and occupational and psychological rehabilitation may found to be more effective. (Zebenlozer and Oder, 1998) Over the past few decades major advancements have been made in the management of patients with traumatic brain injury and significant improvements have been made in their care in the pre hospital and emergency department settings. Patients with complex, multisystem trauma are admitted to critical care unit and these patients require complex care. (Lind D Urden, 2010) Rehabilitation is an important part of the recovery process for a traumatic brain injury patient. The patients with brain injury are completely dependent on health care providers to meet all their needs. Rehabilitation should begin as soon as possible after brain injury patient is stable, often with 24-48 hrs after resuscitation. The overall goal of rehabilitation after a traumatic brain injury is to improve the patients ability to function at home and in society. (Davis White, 1995) Music therapy benefits patients across the spectrum, from premature infants in neonatal intensive care units responding to lullabies to swing band numbers in elderly Alzheimer’s patients’ moods and appetites. Involving the primary care givers take care in auditory stimulation program will helps in continuity of care and also helps to reduce cost of care. (German, 2003) Broca’s area is important in processing the sequencing of physical movement and in tracking musical rhythms. It is critical for converting thought into spoken words. Scientists speculate, therefore, that Broca’s area supports the appropriate timing, sequencing, and knowledge of rules that are common and essential to music, speech, and movement. The brain areas involved in music are also active in processing language, auditory perception, attention, memory, executive control, and motor control. Music efficiently accesses and activates these systems and can drive complex patterns of interaction among them. (Michael Thaut Gerald Mclntosh, 2010) Complementary and alternative therapies are now the fastest growing areas of health care. Music therapy is one of the best and cheapest alternative methods. Teaching the care giver about the auditory stimulation helps to promote care and satisfaction to the patient. For many individuals, music is a source of pleasure and therefore more preferable. Hence the researcher believes that the use of auditory stimulation for patients with brain injury provides the rehabilitative as well as physical assistance with most cost effective manner. Statement of the Problem: A Study to Evaluate the Effectiveness of Auditory Stimulation on Motor and Verbal Responses among Patients admitted in Intensive Care Unit with Traumatic Brain Injury at Selected Hospitals, Salem. Objectives: To assess the motor and verbal responses among patients with traumatic brain injury in experimental group and control group. To evaluate the effectiveness of auditory stimulation on motor and verbal responses among patients with traumatic brain injury in experimental group and control group. To associate motor and verbal responses among patients with traumatic brain injury with their selected demographic variables in experimental and control group. Operational Definitions: Effectiveness: Improvement of motor and verbal responses among patients with traumatic brain injury after implementing auditory stimulation along with routine nursing care as observed by Glasgow Coma Scale Score. Auditory Stimulation: In this study it refers to auditory stimulation in which classical instrumental music therapy is given to patients with traumatic brain injury using I pod for twenty minutes for three times a day. Motor function: In this study it refers to patient actively moving upper extremities or lower extremities as response towards the auditory stimulation with best motor response 6 in G C S score. Verbal response: In this study it refers to ability of the patient to respond orally towards the auditory stimulation with maximum GCS Score of 5. Traumatic brain injury: It refers to injury to the brain resulting from external mechanical force such as violent blow or jolt to the head. In this study it refers to patients diagnosed to have traumatic brain injury with GCS between 8 -12. Assumptions: Sensory stimulation may increase the motor and verbal responses among patients with traumatic brain injury. Nurses can enroll music therapy as a simple nursing intervention to promote the well being among patients with traumatic brain injury. Hypotheses: H1:There will be a significant difference in the pre test and post test motor and verbal responses among patients with traumatic brain injury after administering auditory stimulation in experimental group at P ≠¤ 0.05 level. H2:There will be a significant association between pretest scores on motor and verbal responses among patients with traumatic brain injury with their selected demographic variables in experimental group and control group at P ≠¤ 0.05 level. Delimitation: Study period is limited to 4 weeks. Projected Outcome: This study would help the nurses to enlighten their knowledge regarding auditory stimulation. Nurses can utilize music therapy as an integral part of their routine care to the brain injury patients. Conceptual Framework: Conceptual models are made up of concepts which are words describing the mental images of phenomena and proportions which are statements about concepts. It provides a schematic representation of some relationship among phenomenon. Ernestine Wiedenbach, (1964) proposed a prescriptive theory for nursing which is described as conceiving of a desired situation and the ways to attain it. Prescriptive theory directs action towards an explicit goal. The present study is based on the concept of providing auditory stimulation to patients with traumatic brain injury patients. The investigator adopted Wiedenbach’s Helping Nursing Art Theory (1964). This theory, describes the desired situation and way to be attained. It directs action towards the explicit goals. This theory has three factors Central purpose Prescription Reality Central Purpose: It refers to what a nurse wants to accomplish. It is an overall goal towards which a nurse strives. The central purpose of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of auditory stimulation on motor and verbal responses among patients with traumatic brain injury Prescription: It refers to the plan of action for the patient. It will specify the nature of the action that will fulfil the nurse’s central purpose. The prescription of this study is providing auditory stimulation to patients with traumatic brain injury . Reality: It refers to the physical, psychological, emotional and spiritual factors that come into play in situation involving the nurses. The five realities identified by Widenbach’s are agent, recipient, goal, mean activities frame work. According to this theory, nursing practice consist of 3-steps, which are all guiding the researcher to attain the desired objectives. Step – I Identifying the need for help. Step – II Ministering the needed help. Step – III Validating that the need for help was met. Step-I: This involves determining the need for help. The investigator assesses motor and verbal response among patients with traumatic brain injury by Glasgow Coma Scale score and demographic variables through the structured interview schedule. Step-II: After identification of the patient’s needs ,the researcher facilitate the plan for care and implement it. In this study , the researcher provided auditory stimulation to the experimental group. Wiedenbach theory defines the five realities: Agent: Nurse Investigator. Recipient: Patients with traumatic brain injury. Goal: To determine the effectiveness of auditory stimulation on motor and verbal responses among patients with traumatic brain injury. Means and activities: Implementation of music therapy. Frame work and facilities : Sri Gokulam Specialty Hospital and Sri Gokulam Hospital Step-III: This is accomplished by means of validation of the prescription. It is done through the pretest and posttest assessment of the motor function and verbal response among patients with traumatic brain injury. If there are no significant changes in the perceived behaviour we need to reconstruct the experience to ascertain step – I II. Not included in study Figure-1.1: Conceptual Frame Work Based on Modified Wiedenbach’s Helping Art of Clinical Nursing Theory (1964) on Effectiveness of Auditory Stimulation on Motor and Verbal Responses among Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury. Summary: This chapter dealt with introduction, need for the study, statement of the problem, objectives, operational definitions, assumptions, delimitations, projected outcome and conceptual framework

Literature Survey on Hydrogen Separation Technique

Literature Survey on Hydrogen Separation Technique Literature review has been performed in order to identify recent publications on hydrogen separation methods, hydrogen solubility, materials and concepts in research institutes and laboratories. The aim of the performed literature survey was to monitor recent worldwide literature and find out whether some of the developed and reported solutions might possibly help to improve existing hydrogen separation concept in PDh system, enabling efficient complete separation of hydrogen from all unwanted hydrocarbons. Literature survey on hydrogen separation technique Basically there are four important methods applied to the separation of gases in the industry: absorption, adsorption, cryogenic and membranes. Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) is a gas purification process consisting of the removal of impurities on adsorbent beds. The usual adsorbents and gases adsorbed are molecular sieves for carbon monoxide, activated carbon for CO2, activated alumina or silica gel. Industrial PSA plants consist of up to 12 adsorbers and along with the number of valves required this makes the system rather complicated and complex. The PSA process is usually a repeating sequence of the following steps: adsorption at feed pressure, co-current depressurisation to intermediate pressure, counter-current depressurisation to atmospheric pressure usually starting at 10 % to 70 % of the feed pressure, counter-current purge with hydrogen enriched or product gas at ambient pressure, co-current pressure equalisation and finally, co-current pressurisation with feed or secondary process gas[1]. For hydrogen purification by PSA hydrogen purity is high but the amount of rejected hydrogen is also relatively high (10 †“ 35 %). It seems also that cryogenic technology might not be applicable for PDh process gas separation. Cooling down the mixture will finally end in a solid jet fuel and a gas phase. Handling the solid is more difficult when compared with liquid. During the survey it became evident that membrane technology is the most popular, used and still investigating for the improvement process for hydrogen separation therefore the focus of the study is mainly on this technique. The membrane separation process involves several elementary steps, which include the solution of hydrogen and its diffusion as atomic hydrogen through the membrane bulk material. Nowadays, membrane technologies are becoming more frequently used for separation of wide varying mixtures in the petrochemical related industries. According to Sutherland[2] it is estimated that bulk chemicals and petrochemicals applications represented about 40% of the membrane market in the whole chemicals industry or about $ 1.5 billions, growing over 5 % per year. Membrane gas separation is attractive because of its simplicity and low energy cost. The advantages of using membrane gas separation technologies could be summarized as following: Continuous and clean process, membranes do not require regeneration, unlike the adsorption or the absorption processes, which require regeneration step leading to the use of two solid beds or a solvent regeneration unit. Required filtration system is simple and inexpensive. Compared with conventional techniques, membranes can offer a simple, easy-to-operate, low-maintenance process. Membrane process is simple, generally carried out at atmospheric conditions which, besides being energy efficient, can be important for sensitive applications in pharmaceutical and food industry. The recovery of components from a main stream using membranes can be done without substantial additional energy costs. Membrane is defined essentially as a barrier, which separates two phases and restricts transport of various chemicals in a selective manner. A membrane can be homogenous or heterogeneous, symmetric or asymmetric in structure, solid or liquid; can carry a positive or negative charge or be neutral or bipolar. Transport through a membrane can be affected by convection or by diffusion of individual molecules, induced by an electric field or concentration, pressure or temperature gradient. It takes place when a driving force is applied to the components in the feed. In most of the membrane processes, the driving force is a pressure difference or a concentration (or activity) difference across the membrane. Another driving force in membrane separations is the electrical potential difference. This driving force only influences the transport of charged particles or molecules. The hydrogen separation factor is sometimes used to specify membrane quality. It is defined as following: where ni stands for moles of species i transferred through the membrane and ?pi stands for the partial pressure difference of species i through the membrane. The membrane thickness may vary from as small as 10 microns to few hundred micrometers. Basic types of membranes are presented in Figure 4. Membranes in petrochemical industry are mainly used for concentration, purification and fractionation however they may be coupled to a chemical reaction to shift the chemical equilibrium in a combination defined as a membrane reactor. Using a membrane is adding costs to any process, therefore in order to overcome the cost issue another advantages must overcome the added expenses like material with a very good separation factor, high flux, high quality membrane materials (stable during many months of operation). In a membrane separation reactor both organic and inorganic membranes can be used. Many industrial catalytic processes involve the combination of high temperature and chemically harsh environments favouring therefore inorganic membranes due to their thermal stability, resistance to organic solvents, chlorine and other chemicals. Some promising applications using inorganic membranes include certain dehydrogenation, hydrogenation and oxidation reactions like formation of butane from dehydrogenation of ethyl benzene, styrene production from dehydrogenation of ethyl benzene, dehydrogenation of ethane to ethane, oxidative coupling of methane etc. In membrane reactor two basic concepts can be distinguished as can be seen in Figure 5. reaction and separation combined in one reactor (catalytic membrane reactor) reaction and separation are not combined and the reactants are recycled along a membrane system (membrane recycle reactor) Catalytic membrane reactor concept is used especially with inorganic membranes (ceramics, metals) and polymeric membranes where the catalyst is coupled to the membrane. Membrane recycle reactor can be applied with any membrane process and type of membranes. Most of the chemical reactions need catalyst to enhance the reaction kinetics. The catalyst must be combined with the membrane system and various arrangements are possible, as can be seen in Figure 6. The advantage of the catalyst located inside the bore of the tube is simplicity in preparation and operation. When needed the catalyst could be easily replaced. In case of top layer filled with catalyst and membrane wall, the catalyst is immobilized onto the membrane. Palladium has been known to be a highly hydrogen permeable and selective material since the 19th century. The existing Pd-based membranes can be mainly classified into two types according to the structure of the membrane as (i) self-supporting Pd-based membranes and (ii) composite structures composed of thin Pd-based layers on porous materials. Most self-supporting Pd-based membranes are commercially available in the forms that are easily integrated into a separation setup. However these membranes are relatively thick (50 mm or more) and therefore the hydrogen flux through them is limited. Thick palladium membranes are expensive and rather suitable for use in large scale chemical production. For practical use it is necessary to develop separation units with reduced thickness of the layer. An additional problem is that in order to have adequate mechanical strength, relatively thick porous supports have to be used. In the last decade a significant research has been carried out to achie ve higher fluxes by depositing thin layers of Pd or Pd alloys on porous supports like ceramics or stainless steel. A submicron thick and defect-free palladium-silver (Pd-Ag) alloy membrane was fabricated on a supportive microsieve by using microfabrication technique and tested by Tong et al[4]. The technique also allowed production of a robust wafer-scale membrane module which could be easily inserted into a membrane holder to have gas-tight connections to outside. Fabricated membrane had a great potential for hydrogen purification and in application like dehydrogenation industry. One membrane module was investigated for a period of ca. 1000 hours during which the membrane experienced a change in gas type and its concentration as well as temperature cycling between 20 – 450  °C. The measured results showed no significant reduction in flux or selectivity, suggesting thus very good membrane stability. The authors carried out experiments with varying hydrogen concentration in the feed from 18 to 83 kPa at 450  °C to determine the steps limiting H2 transport rate. It is assumed that the fabricated membrane may be used as a membrane reactor for dehydrogenation reactions to synthesize high value products although its use may be limited due to high pressures of tens of bars. Schematic drawing of the hydrogen separation setup is presented in Figure 7. The membrane module was placed in a stainless steel holder installed in a temperature controlled oven to ensure isothermal operation. The H2/He feed (from 300 to 100 ml/mol) was preheated in spirals placed in the same oven. The setup was running automatically for 24 h/day and could handle 100 recipes without user intervention. Tucho et al.[5] performed microstructural studies of self-supported Pd / 23 wt. % Ag hydrogen separation membranes subjected to different heat treatments (300/400/450  °C for 4 days) and then tested for hydrogen permeation. It was noted that changes in permeability were dependent on the treatment atmosphere and temperature as well as membrane thickness. At higher temperatures significant grain growth was observed and stress relaxation occurred. Nam et al.[6] were able to fabricate a highly stable palladium alloy composite membrane for hydrogen separation on a porous stainless steel support by the vacuum electrodeposition and laminating procedure. The membrane was manufactured without microstructural change therefore it was possible to obtain both high performance (above 3 months of operation) and physical and morphological stability of the membrane. It was observed that the composite membrane had a capability to separate hydrogen from gas mixture with complete hydrogen selectivity and could be used to produce ultra-pure hydrogen for applications in membrane reactor. Tanaka et al.[7] aimed at the improved thermal stability of mesoporous Pd-YSZ-g-Al2O3 composite membrane. The improved thermal stability allowed operation at elevated temperature (> 500  °C for 200 hours). This was probably the result of improved fracture toughness of YSZ-g-Al2O3 layer and matching thermal expansion coefficient between palladium and YSZ. Kuraoka, Zhao and Yazawa[8] demonstrated that pore-filled palladium glass composite membranes for hydrogen separation prepared by electroless plating technique have both higher hydrogen permeance, and better mechanical properties than unsupported Pd films. The same technique was applied by Paglieri et al.[9] for plating a layer of Pd and then copper onto porous ?-substrate. Zahedi et al.[10] developed a thin palladium membrane by depositing Pd onto a tungsten oxide WO3 modified porous stainless steel disc and reported that permeability measureme nts at 723, 773 and 823 K showed high permeability and selectivity for hydrogen. The membrane was stable with regards to hydrogen for about 25 days. Certain effort has been performed for improving hydrothermal stability and application to hydrogen separation membranes at high temperatures. Igi et al.[11] prepared a hydrogen separation microporous membranes with enhanced hydrothermal stability at 500  °C under a steam pressure of 300 kPa. Co-doped silica sol solutions with varying Co composition (Co / (Si + Co) from 10 to 50 mol. %) were prepared and used for manufacturing the membranes. The membranes showed increased hydrothermal stability and high selectivity and permeability towards hydrogen when compared with pure silica membranes. The Co-doped silica membranes with a Co composition of 33 mol. % showed the highest selectivity for hydrogen, with a H2 permeance of 4.00 x 10-6 (m3 (STP) Ãâ€" (m Ãâ€" s Ãâ€" kPa)-1) and a H2/N2 permeance ratio of 730. It was observed that as the Co composition increased as high as 33 %, the activation energy of hydrogen permeation decreased and the H2 permeance increased. Additional increase in Co concentration resulted in increased H2 activation energy and decreased H2 permeance. Due to high permselectivity of Pd membranes, high purity of hydrogen can be obtained directly from hydrogen containing mixture at high temperatures without further purification providing if sufficient pressure gradient is applied. Therefore it is possible to integrate the reforming reaction and the separation step in a single unit. A membrane reformer system is simpler, more compact and more efficient than the conventional PSA system (Pressure Swing Adsorption) because stem reforming reaction of hydrocarbon fuels and hydrogen separation process take place in a single reactor simultaneously and without a separate shift converter and a purification system. Gepert et al.[12] have aimed at development of heat-integrated compact membrane reformer for d ecentralized hydrogen production and worked on composite ceramic capillaries (made of ?-Al2O3) coated with thin palladium membranes for production of CO-free hydrogen for PEM fuel cells by alcohol reforming. The membranes were tested for pure hydrogen and N2 as well as for synthetic reformate gas. The process steps comprised the evaporation and overheating of the water/alcohol feed, water gas shift combined with highly selective hydrogen separation. The authors have focused on the step concerned with the membrane separation of hydrogen from the reforming mixture and on the challenges and requirements of that process. The challenges encountered with the development of capillary Pd membranes were as following: long term temperature and pressure cycling stability in a reformate gas atmosphere, the ability to withstand frequent heating up and cooling down to room temperature, avoidance of the formation of pin-holes during operation and the integration of the membranes into reactor housi ng. It was observed that palladium membranes should not be operated at temperatures below 300  °C and pressures lower than 20 bar, while the upper operating range is between 500 and 900  °C. Alloying the membrane with copper and silver extend their operating temperature down to a room temperature. The introduction of silver into palladium membrane increases the lifetime, but also the costs when compared with copper. Detailed procedure of membrane manufacturing, integration into reformer unit and testing is described by the authors. Schematic of the concept of the integrated reformer is shown in Figure 8. The membrane was integrated in a metal tube embedded in electrically heated copper plates. Before entering the test tube, the gases were preheated to avoid local cooling of the membrane. Single gas measurements with pure N2 and H2 allowed the testing of the general performance of the membrane and the permselectivity for the respective gases to be reached. Synthetic reformate gas consisting of 75 % H2, 23.5 % CO2 and 1.5 % CO was used to get information about the performance. The membranes were tested between 370 – 450  °C and pressures up to 8 bar. The authors concluded that in general the membranes have shown good performance in terms of permeance and permselectivity including operation under reformate gas conditions. However, several problems were indicated concerning long-term stability under real reforming conditions, mainly related to structural nature (combination of different materials: ceramic, glaze, palladium resulted on incoherent potential for causing membrane failure). At operation times up to four weeks the continuous Pd layer remained essentially free from defects and pinholes. Han et al.[13] have developed a membrane separation module for a power equivalent of 10 kWel. A palladium membrane containing 40 wt. % copper and of 25 mm thickness was bonded into a metal frame. The separation module for a capacity of 10 Nm3 h-1 of hydrogen had a diameter of 10.8 cm and a length of 56 cm. Reformate fed to the modules contained 65 vol. % of hydrogen and the hydrogen recovery through the membrane was in the range of 75 %. Stable operation of the membrane separation was achieved for 750 pressure swing tests at 350  °C. The membrane separation device was integrated into a methanol fuel processor. Pientka et al.[14] have utilized a closed-cell polystyrene foam (Ursa XPS NIII, porosity 97 %) as a membrane buffer for separation of (bio)hydrogen. In the foam the cell walls formed a structured complex of membranes. The cells served as pressure containers of separated gases. The foam membrane was able to buffer the difference between the feed injection rate and the rate of consumption of the product. Using the difference in time-lags of different gases in polymeric foam, efficient gas separation was achieved during transient state and high purity hydrogen was obtained. Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) is involved in developing dense hydrogen-permeable membranes for separating hydrogen from mixed gases, particularly product streams during coal gasification and/or methane reforming. Novel cermet (ceramic-metal composite) membranes have been developed. Hydrogen separation with these membranes is non-galvanic (does not use electrodes or external power supply to drive the separation and hydrogen selectivity is nearly 100 % because the membrane contain no interconnected porosity). The membrane development at ANL initially concentrated on a mixed proton/electron conductor based on BaCe0.8Y0.2O3-d (BCY), but it turned to be insufficient to allow high non-galvanic hydrogen flux. To increase the electronic conductivity and thereby to increase the hydrogen flux the development focused on various cermet membranes with 40-50 vol. % of metal or alloy dispersed in the ceramic matrix. Balachandran et al.[15],[16] described the development performed at ANL. The powder mixture for fabricating cermet membranes was prepared by mechanical mixing Pd (50 vol. %) with YSZ, after that the powder mixture was pressed into discs. Polished cermet membranes were affixed to one end of alumina tube using a gold casket for a seal (as can be seen in Figure 9). In order to measure the hydrogen permeation rate, the alumina tube was inserted into a furnace with a sealed membrane and the associated gas flow tubes. Hydrogen permeation rate for Pd/YSZ membranes has been measured as a function of temperature (500-900  °C), partial pressure of hydrogen in the feed stream (0.04-1.0 atm.) and membrane thickness ( » 22-210 mm) as well as versus time during exposure to feed gases containing H2, CO, CO2, CH4 and H2S. The highest hydrogen flux was  » 20.0 cm3 (STP)/min cm2 for  » 22- mm thick membrane at 900  °C using 100 % hydrogen as the feed gas. These results suggested that membranes with thickness In the last decade Matrimid 5218 (Polyimide of 3,3,4,4-benzophenone tetracarboxylic dianhydride and diamino-phenylindane) has attracted a lot of attention as a material for gas separation membranes due to the combination of relatively high gas permeability coefficients and separation factors combined with excellent mechanical properties, solubility in non-hazard organic solvents and commercial availability. Shishatskiy et al.[18] have developed asymmetric flat sheet membranes for hydrogen separation from its mixtures with other gases. The composition and conditions of membrane preparation were optimized for pilot scale membrane production. The resulting membrane had a high hydrogen flux (1 m3 (STP)/m2h*bar) and selectivity of H2/CH4 at least 100, close to the selectivity of Matrimid 5218, material used for asymmetric structure formation. The hydrogen flux through the membranes increased with the decrease of polymer concentration and increase of non-solvent concentration. In addition, the influence of N2 blowing over the membrane surface (0, 2, 3, 4 Nm3 h-1 flow rate) was studied and it was proved that the selectivity of the membrane decreased with increase of the gas flow. The SEM image of the membrane supported by Matrimid 5218 is shown in Figure 10. The stability against hydrocarbons was tested by immersion of the membrane into the mixture of n-pentane/n-hexane/toluene in 1:1:1 ratio. Stability tests showed that the developed membrane was stable against mixtures of liquid hydrocarbons and could withstand continuous heating up to 200  °C for 24 and 120 hours and did not lose gas separation properties after exposure to a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons. The polyester non-woven fabric used as a support for the asymmetric membrane gave to the membrane excellent mechanical properties and allowed to use the membrane in gas separation modules. Interesting report on development of compact hydrogen separation module called MOC (Membrane On Catalyst) with structured Ni-based catalyst for use in the membrane reactor was presented by Kurokawa et al[19]. In the MOC concept a porous support itself had a function of reforming catalyst in addition to the role of membrane support. The integrated structure of support and catalyst made the membrane reformer more compact because the separate catalysts placed around the membrane modules in the conventional membrane reformers could be eliminated. In that idea first a porous catalytic structure 8YSZ (mixture of NiO and 8 mol. % Y2O3-ZrO2 at the weight ratio 60:40) was prepared as the support structure of the hydrogen membrane. The mixture was pressed into a tube closed at one end and sintered then in air. Slurry of 8YSZ was coated on the external surface of the porous support and heat-treated for alloying. Obtained module of size 10 mm outside and 8 mm inside diameter, 100 ~ 300 mm length and the membrane thickness was 7 ~ 20 mm were heated in flowing hydrogen at 600  °C for 3 hours to reduce NiO in the support structure into Ni before use (the porosity of the support after reduction was 43 %). A stainless steel cap and pipe were bonded to the module to introduce H2 into the inside of the tubular module. Figure 11 presents the conceptual structure design of the MOC module as compared with the structure of the conventional membrane reformer. The sample module in the reaction chamber was placed in the furnace and heated at 600  °C, pre-heated hydrogen (or humidified methane) was supplied inside MOC at the pressure of 0.1 MPa and the permeated hydrogen was collected from the outside chamber around the module at ambient pressure. The 100 ~ 300 mm long modules with 10 mm membrane showed hydrogen flux of 30 cm3 per minute per cm2 which was two times higher than the permeability of the conventional modules with palladium based alloy films. Membrane On Catalyst modules have a great potential to be applied to membrane reformer systems. In this concept a porous support itself has a function of reforming catalyst in addition to the role of membrane support. It seems that Membrane On Catalyst modules have a great potential to be applied to membrane reformer systems. Amorphous alloy membranes composed primarily of Ni and early transition metals (ETM) are an inexpensive alternative to Pd-based alloy membranes, and these materials are therefore of particular interest for the large-scale production of hydrogen from carbon-based fuels. Catalytic membrane reactors can produce hydrogen directly from coal-derived synthesis gas at 400 °C, by combining a commercial water-gas shift (WGS) catalyst with a hydrogen-selective membrane. Three main classes of membrane are capable of operating at the high temperatures demanded by existing WGS catalysts: ceramic membranes producing pure hydrogen via ion-transfer mechanism at  ³ 600  °C, alloy membranes which produce pure hydrogen via a solution-diffusion mechanism between 300 – 500  °C and microporous membranes, typically silica or carbon, whose purity depends on the pore size of the membrane and which operate over a wide temperature range dependent on the membrane material. In order to explore the suitability of Ni-based amorphous alloys for this application, the thermal stability and hydrogen permeation characteristics of Ni-ETM amorphous alloy membranes has been examined by Dolan et al[20]. Fundamental limitation of these materials is that hydrogen permeability is inversely proportional to the thermal stability of the alloy. Alloy design is therefore a compromise between hydrogen production rate and durability. Amorphous Ni60Nb(40-x)Zr(x) membranes have been tested at 400 °C in pure hydrogen, and in simulated coal-derived gas streams with high steam, CO and CO2 levels, without severe degradation or corrosion-induced failure. The authors have concluded that Ni-Nb-Zr amorphous alloys are therefore prospective materials for use in a catalytic membrane reactor for coal-derived syngas. Much attention has been given to inorganic materials such as zeolite, silica, zirconia and titania for development of gas- and liquid- separation membranes because they can be utilized under har sh conditions where organic polymer membranes cannot be applied. Silica membranes have been studied extensively for the preparation of various kinds of separation membranes: hydrogen, CO2 and C3 isomers. Kanezeashi[21] have proposed silica networks using an organo-inorganic hybrid alkoxide structure containing the organic groups between two silicon atoms, such as bis(triethoxysilyl)ethane (BTESE) for development of highly permeable hydrogen separation membranes with hydrothermal stability. The concept for improvement of hydrogen permeability of silica membrane was to design a loose-organic-inorganic hybrid silica network using mentioned BTESE (to shift the silica networks to a larger pore size for an increase in H2 permeability). A hybrid silica layer was prepared by coating a silica-zirconia intermediate layer with a BTESE polymer sol followed by drying and calcination at 300 °C in nitrogen. A thin, continuous separation layer of hybrid silica for selective H2 permeation was observed on top of the SiO2-ZrO2 intermediate layer as presented in Figure 12. Hybrid silica membranes showed a very high H2 permeance, ~ 1 order of magnitude higher (~ 10-5 mol m-2 s-1 Pa-1) than previously r eported silica membranes using TEOS (Tetraethoxysilane). The hydrothermal stability of the hybrid silica membranes due to the presence of Si-C-C-Si bonds in the silica networks was also confirmed. Nitodas et al.[22] for the development of composite silica membranes have used the method of chemical vapour deposition (CVD) in the counter current configuration from TEOS and ozone mixtures. The experiments were conducted in a horizontal hot-wall CVD quartz reactor (Figure 13) under controlled temperature conditions (523 – 543 K) and at various reaction times (0 -15 hours) and differential pressures across the substrate sides using two types of substrates: a porous Vycor tube and alumina (g-Al2O3) nanofiltration (NF) tube. The permeance of hydrogen and other gases (He, N2, Ar, CO2) were measured in a home-made apparatus (able to operate under high vacuum conditions 10-3 Torr, feed pressure up to 70 bar) and the separation capability of the composite membranes was determined by calculating the selectivity of hydrogen over He, N2, Ar, CO2. The in-situ monitoring of gas permeance during the CVD development of nanoporous membranes created a tool to detect pore size alterations i n the micro to nanometer scale of thickness. The highest permeance values in both modified and unmodified membranes are observed for H2 and the lowest for CO2. This indicated that the developed membranes were ideal candidates for H2/CO2 separations, like for example in reforming units of natural gas and biogas (H2/CO2/CO/CH4). Moon et al.[23] have studied the separation characteristics and dynamics of hydrogen mixture produced from natural gas reformer on tubular type methyltriethoxysilane (MTES) silica / ?-alumina composite membranes. The permeation and separation of CO pure gas, H2/CO (50/50 vol. %) binary mixture and H2/CH4/CO/CO2 (69/3/2/26 vol. %) quaternary mixture was investigated. The authors developed a membrane process suitable for separating H2 from CO and other reformate gases (CO2 or CH4) that showed a molecular sieving effect. Since the permeance of pure CO on the MTES membrane was very low (CO  » 4.79 – 6.46 x 10-11 mol m-2 s-1 Pa-1), comparatively high hydrogen selectivity could be obtained from the H2/CO mixture (separation factor: 93 – 110). This meant that CO (which shall be eliminated before entering fuel cell) can be separated from hydrogen mixtures using MTES membranes. The permeance of the hydrogen quaternary mixture on MTES membrane was 2.07 – 3.37 x 10-9 mol m-2 s-1 Pa-1 and the separation factor of H2 / (CO + CH4 + CO2) was 2.61 – 10.33 at 323 – 473 K (Figure 14). The permeation and selectivity of hydrogen were increased with temperature because of activation of H2 molecules and unfavourable conditions for CO2 adsorption. Compared to other impurities, CO was most successfully removed from the H2 mixture. The MTES membranes showed great potential for hydrogen separation from reforming gas with high selectivity and high permeance and therefore they have good potential for fuel cell systems and for use in hydrogen stations. According to the authors, the silica membranes are expected to be used for separating hydrogen in reforming environment at high temperatures. Silica membranes prepared by the CVD or sol-gel methods on mesoporous support are effective for selective hydrogen permeation, however it is known that hydrogen-selective silica materials are not thermally stable at high temperatures. Most researchers reported a loss of permeability of silica membranes even 50 % or greater in the first 12 hours on exposure to moisture at high temperature. Much effort has been spent on the improvement of the stability of silica membranes. Gu et al.[24] have investigated a hydrothermally stable and hydrogen-selective membrane composed of silica and alumina prepared on a macroporous alumina support by CVD in an inert atmosphere at high temperature. Before the deposition of the silica-alumina composite multiple graded layers of alumina were coated on the alumina support with three sols of decreasing particle sizes. The resulting supported composite silica-alumina membrane had high permeability for hydrogen (in the order of 10-7 mol m-2 s-1 Pa-1) at 873 K . Significantly the composite membrane exhibited much higher stability to water vapour at the high temperature of 873 K in comparison to pure silica membranes. The introduction of alumina into silica made the silica structure more stable and slowed down the silica disintegration process. As mentioned, silica membranes produced by sol-gel technique or by CVD applied for gas separation, especially for H2 production are quite stable in dry gases and exhibit high separation ratio, but lose the permeability when used in the steamed gases because of sintering or tightening. Thi Literature Survey on Hydrogen Separation Technique Literature Survey on Hydrogen Separation Technique Literature review has been performed in order to identify recent publications on hydrogen separation methods, hydrogen solubility, materials and concepts in research institutes and laboratories. The aim of the performed literature survey was to monitor recent worldwide literature and find out whether some of the developed and reported solutions might possibly help to improve existing hydrogen separation concept in PDh system, enabling efficient complete separation of hydrogen from all unwanted hydrocarbons. Literature survey on hydrogen separation technique Basically there are four important methods applied to the separation of gases in the industry: absorption, adsorption, cryogenic and membranes. Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) is a gas purification process consisting of the removal of impurities on adsorbent beds. The usual adsorbents and gases adsorbed are molecular sieves for carbon monoxide, activated carbon for CO2, activated alumina or silica gel. Industrial PSA plants consist of up to 12 adsorbers and along with the number of valves required this makes the system rather complicated and complex. The PSA process is usually a repeating sequence of the following steps: adsorption at feed pressure, co-current depressurisation to intermediate pressure, counter-current depressurisation to atmospheric pressure usually starting at 10 % to 70 % of the feed pressure, counter-current purge with hydrogen enriched or product gas at ambient pressure, co-current pressure equalisation and finally, co-current pressurisation with feed or secondary process gas[1]. For hydrogen purification by PSA hydrogen purity is high but the amount of rejected hydrogen is also relatively high (10 †“ 35 %). It seems also that cryogenic technology might not be applicable for PDh process gas separation. Cooling down the mixture will finally end in a solid jet fuel and a gas phase. Handling the solid is more difficult when compared with liquid. During the survey it became evident that membrane technology is the most popular, used and still investigating for the improvement process for hydrogen separation therefore the focus of the study is mainly on this technique. The membrane separation process involves several elementary steps, which include the solution of hydrogen and its diffusion as atomic hydrogen through the membrane bulk material. Nowadays, membrane technologies are becoming more frequently used for separation of wide varying mixtures in the petrochemical related industries. According to Sutherland[2] it is estimated that bulk chemicals and petrochemicals applications represented about 40% of the membrane market in the whole chemicals industry or about $ 1.5 billions, growing over 5 % per year. Membrane gas separation is attractive because of its simplicity and low energy cost. The advantages of using membrane gas separation technologies could be summarized as following: Continuous and clean process, membranes do not require regeneration, unlike the adsorption or the absorption processes, which require regeneration step leading to the use of two solid beds or a solvent regeneration unit. Required filtration system is simple and inexpensive. Compared with conventional techniques, membranes can offer a simple, easy-to-operate, low-maintenance process. Membrane process is simple, generally carried out at atmospheric conditions which, besides being energy efficient, can be important for sensitive applications in pharmaceutical and food industry. The recovery of components from a main stream using membranes can be done without substantial additional energy costs. Membrane is defined essentially as a barrier, which separates two phases and restricts transport of various chemicals in a selective manner. A membrane can be homogenous or heterogeneous, symmetric or asymmetric in structure, solid or liquid; can carry a positive or negative charge or be neutral or bipolar. Transport through a membrane can be affected by convection or by diffusion of individual molecules, induced by an electric field or concentration, pressure or temperature gradient. It takes place when a driving force is applied to the components in the feed. In most of the membrane processes, the driving force is a pressure difference or a concentration (or activity) difference across the membrane. Another driving force in membrane separations is the electrical potential difference. This driving force only influences the transport of charged particles or molecules. The hydrogen separation factor is sometimes used to specify membrane quality. It is defined as following: where ni stands for moles of species i transferred through the membrane and ?pi stands for the partial pressure difference of species i through the membrane. The membrane thickness may vary from as small as 10 microns to few hundred micrometers. Basic types of membranes are presented in Figure 4. Membranes in petrochemical industry are mainly used for concentration, purification and fractionation however they may be coupled to a chemical reaction to shift the chemical equilibrium in a combination defined as a membrane reactor. Using a membrane is adding costs to any process, therefore in order to overcome the cost issue another advantages must overcome the added expenses like material with a very good separation factor, high flux, high quality membrane materials (stable during many months of operation). In a membrane separation reactor both organic and inorganic membranes can be used. Many industrial catalytic processes involve the combination of high temperature and chemically harsh environments favouring therefore inorganic membranes due to their thermal stability, resistance to organic solvents, chlorine and other chemicals. Some promising applications using inorganic membranes include certain dehydrogenation, hydrogenation and oxidation reactions like formation of butane from dehydrogenation of ethyl benzene, styrene production from dehydrogenation of ethyl benzene, dehydrogenation of ethane to ethane, oxidative coupling of methane etc. In membrane reactor two basic concepts can be distinguished as can be seen in Figure 5. reaction and separation combined in one reactor (catalytic membrane reactor) reaction and separation are not combined and the reactants are recycled along a membrane system (membrane recycle reactor) Catalytic membrane reactor concept is used especially with inorganic membranes (ceramics, metals) and polymeric membranes where the catalyst is coupled to the membrane. Membrane recycle reactor can be applied with any membrane process and type of membranes. Most of the chemical reactions need catalyst to enhance the reaction kinetics. The catalyst must be combined with the membrane system and various arrangements are possible, as can be seen in Figure 6. The advantage of the catalyst located inside the bore of the tube is simplicity in preparation and operation. When needed the catalyst could be easily replaced. In case of top layer filled with catalyst and membrane wall, the catalyst is immobilized onto the membrane. Palladium has been known to be a highly hydrogen permeable and selective material since the 19th century. The existing Pd-based membranes can be mainly classified into two types according to the structure of the membrane as (i) self-supporting Pd-based membranes and (ii) composite structures composed of thin Pd-based layers on porous materials. Most self-supporting Pd-based membranes are commercially available in the forms that are easily integrated into a separation setup. However these membranes are relatively thick (50 mm or more) and therefore the hydrogen flux through them is limited. Thick palladium membranes are expensive and rather suitable for use in large scale chemical production. For practical use it is necessary to develop separation units with reduced thickness of the layer. An additional problem is that in order to have adequate mechanical strength, relatively thick porous supports have to be used. In the last decade a significant research has been carried out to achie ve higher fluxes by depositing thin layers of Pd or Pd alloys on porous supports like ceramics or stainless steel. A submicron thick and defect-free palladium-silver (Pd-Ag) alloy membrane was fabricated on a supportive microsieve by using microfabrication technique and tested by Tong et al[4]. The technique also allowed production of a robust wafer-scale membrane module which could be easily inserted into a membrane holder to have gas-tight connections to outside. Fabricated membrane had a great potential for hydrogen purification and in application like dehydrogenation industry. One membrane module was investigated for a period of ca. 1000 hours during which the membrane experienced a change in gas type and its concentration as well as temperature cycling between 20 – 450  °C. The measured results showed no significant reduction in flux or selectivity, suggesting thus very good membrane stability. The authors carried out experiments with varying hydrogen concentration in the feed from 18 to 83 kPa at 450  °C to determine the steps limiting H2 transport rate. It is assumed that the fabricated membrane may be used as a membrane reactor for dehydrogenation reactions to synthesize high value products although its use may be limited due to high pressures of tens of bars. Schematic drawing of the hydrogen separation setup is presented in Figure 7. The membrane module was placed in a stainless steel holder installed in a temperature controlled oven to ensure isothermal operation. The H2/He feed (from 300 to 100 ml/mol) was preheated in spirals placed in the same oven. The setup was running automatically for 24 h/day and could handle 100 recipes without user intervention. Tucho et al.[5] performed microstructural studies of self-supported Pd / 23 wt. % Ag hydrogen separation membranes subjected to different heat treatments (300/400/450  °C for 4 days) and then tested for hydrogen permeation. It was noted that changes in permeability were dependent on the treatment atmosphere and temperature as well as membrane thickness. At higher temperatures significant grain growth was observed and stress relaxation occurred. Nam et al.[6] were able to fabricate a highly stable palladium alloy composite membrane for hydrogen separation on a porous stainless steel support by the vacuum electrodeposition and laminating procedure. The membrane was manufactured without microstructural change therefore it was possible to obtain both high performance (above 3 months of operation) and physical and morphological stability of the membrane. It was observed that the composite membrane had a capability to separate hydrogen from gas mixture with complete hydrogen selectivity and could be used to produce ultra-pure hydrogen for applications in membrane reactor. Tanaka et al.[7] aimed at the improved thermal stability of mesoporous Pd-YSZ-g-Al2O3 composite membrane. The improved thermal stability allowed operation at elevated temperature (> 500  °C for 200 hours). This was probably the result of improved fracture toughness of YSZ-g-Al2O3 layer and matching thermal expansion coefficient between palladium and YSZ. Kuraoka, Zhao and Yazawa[8] demonstrated that pore-filled palladium glass composite membranes for hydrogen separation prepared by electroless plating technique have both higher hydrogen permeance, and better mechanical properties than unsupported Pd films. The same technique was applied by Paglieri et al.[9] for plating a layer of Pd and then copper onto porous ?-substrate. Zahedi et al.[10] developed a thin palladium membrane by depositing Pd onto a tungsten oxide WO3 modified porous stainless steel disc and reported that permeability measureme nts at 723, 773 and 823 K showed high permeability and selectivity for hydrogen. The membrane was stable with regards to hydrogen for about 25 days. Certain effort has been performed for improving hydrothermal stability and application to hydrogen separation membranes at high temperatures. Igi et al.[11] prepared a hydrogen separation microporous membranes with enhanced hydrothermal stability at 500  °C under a steam pressure of 300 kPa. Co-doped silica sol solutions with varying Co composition (Co / (Si + Co) from 10 to 50 mol. %) were prepared and used for manufacturing the membranes. The membranes showed increased hydrothermal stability and high selectivity and permeability towards hydrogen when compared with pure silica membranes. The Co-doped silica membranes with a Co composition of 33 mol. % showed the highest selectivity for hydrogen, with a H2 permeance of 4.00 x 10-6 (m3 (STP) Ãâ€" (m Ãâ€" s Ãâ€" kPa)-1) and a H2/N2 permeance ratio of 730. It was observed that as the Co composition increased as high as 33 %, the activation energy of hydrogen permeation decreased and the H2 permeance increased. Additional increase in Co concentration resulted in increased H2 activation energy and decreased H2 permeance. Due to high permselectivity of Pd membranes, high purity of hydrogen can be obtained directly from hydrogen containing mixture at high temperatures without further purification providing if sufficient pressure gradient is applied. Therefore it is possible to integrate the reforming reaction and the separation step in a single unit. A membrane reformer system is simpler, more compact and more efficient than the conventional PSA system (Pressure Swing Adsorption) because stem reforming reaction of hydrocarbon fuels and hydrogen separation process take place in a single reactor simultaneously and without a separate shift converter and a purification system. Gepert et al.[12] have aimed at development of heat-integrated compact membrane reformer for d ecentralized hydrogen production and worked on composite ceramic capillaries (made of ?-Al2O3) coated with thin palladium membranes for production of CO-free hydrogen for PEM fuel cells by alcohol reforming. The membranes were tested for pure hydrogen and N2 as well as for synthetic reformate gas. The process steps comprised the evaporation and overheating of the water/alcohol feed, water gas shift combined with highly selective hydrogen separation. The authors have focused on the step concerned with the membrane separation of hydrogen from the reforming mixture and on the challenges and requirements of that process. The challenges encountered with the development of capillary Pd membranes were as following: long term temperature and pressure cycling stability in a reformate gas atmosphere, the ability to withstand frequent heating up and cooling down to room temperature, avoidance of the formation of pin-holes during operation and the integration of the membranes into reactor housi ng. It was observed that palladium membranes should not be operated at temperatures below 300  °C and pressures lower than 20 bar, while the upper operating range is between 500 and 900  °C. Alloying the membrane with copper and silver extend their operating temperature down to a room temperature. The introduction of silver into palladium membrane increases the lifetime, but also the costs when compared with copper. Detailed procedure of membrane manufacturing, integration into reformer unit and testing is described by the authors. Schematic of the concept of the integrated reformer is shown in Figure 8. The membrane was integrated in a metal tube embedded in electrically heated copper plates. Before entering the test tube, the gases were preheated to avoid local cooling of the membrane. Single gas measurements with pure N2 and H2 allowed the testing of the general performance of the membrane and the permselectivity for the respective gases to be reached. Synthetic reformate gas consisting of 75 % H2, 23.5 % CO2 and 1.5 % CO was used to get information about the performance. The membranes were tested between 370 – 450  °C and pressures up to 8 bar. The authors concluded that in general the membranes have shown good performance in terms of permeance and permselectivity including operation under reformate gas conditions. However, several problems were indicated concerning long-term stability under real reforming conditions, mainly related to structural nature (combination of different materials: ceramic, glaze, palladium resulted on incoherent potential for causing membrane failure). At operation times up to four weeks the continuous Pd layer remained essentially free from defects and pinholes. Han et al.[13] have developed a membrane separation module for a power equivalent of 10 kWel. A palladium membrane containing 40 wt. % copper and of 25 mm thickness was bonded into a metal frame. The separation module for a capacity of 10 Nm3 h-1 of hydrogen had a diameter of 10.8 cm and a length of 56 cm. Reformate fed to the modules contained 65 vol. % of hydrogen and the hydrogen recovery through the membrane was in the range of 75 %. Stable operation of the membrane separation was achieved for 750 pressure swing tests at 350  °C. The membrane separation device was integrated into a methanol fuel processor. Pientka et al.[14] have utilized a closed-cell polystyrene foam (Ursa XPS NIII, porosity 97 %) as a membrane buffer for separation of (bio)hydrogen. In the foam the cell walls formed a structured complex of membranes. The cells served as pressure containers of separated gases. The foam membrane was able to buffer the difference between the feed injection rate and the rate of consumption of the product. Using the difference in time-lags of different gases in polymeric foam, efficient gas separation was achieved during transient state and high purity hydrogen was obtained. Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) is involved in developing dense hydrogen-permeable membranes for separating hydrogen from mixed gases, particularly product streams during coal gasification and/or methane reforming. Novel cermet (ceramic-metal composite) membranes have been developed. Hydrogen separation with these membranes is non-galvanic (does not use electrodes or external power supply to drive the separation and hydrogen selectivity is nearly 100 % because the membrane contain no interconnected porosity). The membrane development at ANL initially concentrated on a mixed proton/electron conductor based on BaCe0.8Y0.2O3-d (BCY), but it turned to be insufficient to allow high non-galvanic hydrogen flux. To increase the electronic conductivity and thereby to increase the hydrogen flux the development focused on various cermet membranes with 40-50 vol. % of metal or alloy dispersed in the ceramic matrix. Balachandran et al.[15],[16] described the development performed at ANL. The powder mixture for fabricating cermet membranes was prepared by mechanical mixing Pd (50 vol. %) with YSZ, after that the powder mixture was pressed into discs. Polished cermet membranes were affixed to one end of alumina tube using a gold casket for a seal (as can be seen in Figure 9). In order to measure the hydrogen permeation rate, the alumina tube was inserted into a furnace with a sealed membrane and the associated gas flow tubes. Hydrogen permeation rate for Pd/YSZ membranes has been measured as a function of temperature (500-900  °C), partial pressure of hydrogen in the feed stream (0.04-1.0 atm.) and membrane thickness ( » 22-210 mm) as well as versus time during exposure to feed gases containing H2, CO, CO2, CH4 and H2S. The highest hydrogen flux was  » 20.0 cm3 (STP)/min cm2 for  » 22- mm thick membrane at 900  °C using 100 % hydrogen as the feed gas. These results suggested that membranes with thickness In the last decade Matrimid 5218 (Polyimide of 3,3,4,4-benzophenone tetracarboxylic dianhydride and diamino-phenylindane) has attracted a lot of attention as a material for gas separation membranes due to the combination of relatively high gas permeability coefficients and separation factors combined with excellent mechanical properties, solubility in non-hazard organic solvents and commercial availability. Shishatskiy et al.[18] have developed asymmetric flat sheet membranes for hydrogen separation from its mixtures with other gases. The composition and conditions of membrane preparation were optimized for pilot scale membrane production. The resulting membrane had a high hydrogen flux (1 m3 (STP)/m2h*bar) and selectivity of H2/CH4 at least 100, close to the selectivity of Matrimid 5218, material used for asymmetric structure formation. The hydrogen flux through the membranes increased with the decrease of polymer concentration and increase of non-solvent concentration. In addition, the influence of N2 blowing over the membrane surface (0, 2, 3, 4 Nm3 h-1 flow rate) was studied and it was proved that the selectivity of the membrane decreased with increase of the gas flow. The SEM image of the membrane supported by Matrimid 5218 is shown in Figure 10. The stability against hydrocarbons was tested by immersion of the membrane into the mixture of n-pentane/n-hexane/toluene in 1:1:1 ratio. Stability tests showed that the developed membrane was stable against mixtures of liquid hydrocarbons and could withstand continuous heating up to 200  °C for 24 and 120 hours and did not lose gas separation properties after exposure to a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons. The polyester non-woven fabric used as a support for the asymmetric membrane gave to the membrane excellent mechanical properties and allowed to use the membrane in gas separation modules. Interesting report on development of compact hydrogen separation module called MOC (Membrane On Catalyst) with structured Ni-based catalyst for use in the membrane reactor was presented by Kurokawa et al[19]. In the MOC concept a porous support itself had a function of reforming catalyst in addition to the role of membrane support. The integrated structure of support and catalyst made the membrane reformer more compact because the separate catalysts placed around the membrane modules in the conventional membrane reformers could be eliminated. In that idea first a porous catalytic structure 8YSZ (mixture of NiO and 8 mol. % Y2O3-ZrO2 at the weight ratio 60:40) was prepared as the support structure of the hydrogen membrane. The mixture was pressed into a tube closed at one end and sintered then in air. Slurry of 8YSZ was coated on the external surface of the porous support and heat-treated for alloying. Obtained module of size 10 mm outside and 8 mm inside diameter, 100 ~ 300 mm length and the membrane thickness was 7 ~ 20 mm were heated in flowing hydrogen at 600  °C for 3 hours to reduce NiO in the support structure into Ni before use (the porosity of the support after reduction was 43 %). A stainless steel cap and pipe were bonded to the module to introduce H2 into the inside of the tubular module. Figure 11 presents the conceptual structure design of the MOC module as compared with the structure of the conventional membrane reformer. The sample module in the reaction chamber was placed in the furnace and heated at 600  °C, pre-heated hydrogen (or humidified methane) was supplied inside MOC at the pressure of 0.1 MPa and the permeated hydrogen was collected from the outside chamber around the module at ambient pressure. The 100 ~ 300 mm long modules with 10 mm membrane showed hydrogen flux of 30 cm3 per minute per cm2 which was two times higher than the permeability of the conventional modules with palladium based alloy films. Membrane On Catalyst modules have a great potential to be applied to membrane reformer systems. In this concept a porous support itself has a function of reforming catalyst in addition to the role of membrane support. It seems that Membrane On Catalyst modules have a great potential to be applied to membrane reformer systems. Amorphous alloy membranes composed primarily of Ni and early transition metals (ETM) are an inexpensive alternative to Pd-based alloy membranes, and these materials are therefore of particular interest for the large-scale production of hydrogen from carbon-based fuels. Catalytic membrane reactors can produce hydrogen directly from coal-derived synthesis gas at 400 °C, by combining a commercial water-gas shift (WGS) catalyst with a hydrogen-selective membrane. Three main classes of membrane are capable of operating at the high temperatures demanded by existing WGS catalysts: ceramic membranes producing pure hydrogen via ion-transfer mechanism at  ³ 600  °C, alloy membranes which produce pure hydrogen via a solution-diffusion mechanism between 300 – 500  °C and microporous membranes, typically silica or carbon, whose purity depends on the pore size of the membrane and which operate over a wide temperature range dependent on the membrane material. In order to explore the suitability of Ni-based amorphous alloys for this application, the thermal stability and hydrogen permeation characteristics of Ni-ETM amorphous alloy membranes has been examined by Dolan et al[20]. Fundamental limitation of these materials is that hydrogen permeability is inversely proportional to the thermal stability of the alloy. Alloy design is therefore a compromise between hydrogen production rate and durability. Amorphous Ni60Nb(40-x)Zr(x) membranes have been tested at 400 °C in pure hydrogen, and in simulated coal-derived gas streams with high steam, CO and CO2 levels, without severe degradation or corrosion-induced failure. The authors have concluded that Ni-Nb-Zr amorphous alloys are therefore prospective materials for use in a catalytic membrane reactor for coal-derived syngas. Much attention has been given to inorganic materials such as zeolite, silica, zirconia and titania for development of gas- and liquid- separation membranes because they can be utilized under har sh conditions where organic polymer membranes cannot be applied. Silica membranes have been studied extensively for the preparation of various kinds of separation membranes: hydrogen, CO2 and C3 isomers. Kanezeashi[21] have proposed silica networks using an organo-inorganic hybrid alkoxide structure containing the organic groups between two silicon atoms, such as bis(triethoxysilyl)ethane (BTESE) for development of highly permeable hydrogen separation membranes with hydrothermal stability. The concept for improvement of hydrogen permeability of silica membrane was to design a loose-organic-inorganic hybrid silica network using mentioned BTESE (to shift the silica networks to a larger pore size for an increase in H2 permeability). A hybrid silica layer was prepared by coating a silica-zirconia intermediate layer with a BTESE polymer sol followed by drying and calcination at 300 °C in nitrogen. A thin, continuous separation layer of hybrid silica for selective H2 permeation was observed on top of the SiO2-ZrO2 intermediate layer as presented in Figure 12. Hybrid silica membranes showed a very high H2 permeance, ~ 1 order of magnitude higher (~ 10-5 mol m-2 s-1 Pa-1) than previously r eported silica membranes using TEOS (Tetraethoxysilane). The hydrothermal stability of the hybrid silica membranes due to the presence of Si-C-C-Si bonds in the silica networks was also confirmed. Nitodas et al.[22] for the development of composite silica membranes have used the method of chemical vapour deposition (CVD) in the counter current configuration from TEOS and ozone mixtures. The experiments were conducted in a horizontal hot-wall CVD quartz reactor (Figure 13) under controlled temperature conditions (523 – 543 K) and at various reaction times (0 -15 hours) and differential pressures across the substrate sides using two types of substrates: a porous Vycor tube and alumina (g-Al2O3) nanofiltration (NF) tube. The permeance of hydrogen and other gases (He, N2, Ar, CO2) were measured in a home-made apparatus (able to operate under high vacuum conditions 10-3 Torr, feed pressure up to 70 bar) and the separation capability of the composite membranes was determined by calculating the selectivity of hydrogen over He, N2, Ar, CO2. The in-situ monitoring of gas permeance during the CVD development of nanoporous membranes created a tool to detect pore size alterations i n the micro to nanometer scale of thickness. The highest permeance values in both modified and unmodified membranes are observed for H2 and the lowest for CO2. This indicated that the developed membranes were ideal candidates for H2/CO2 separations, like for example in reforming units of natural gas and biogas (H2/CO2/CO/CH4). Moon et al.[23] have studied the separation characteristics and dynamics of hydrogen mixture produced from natural gas reformer on tubular type methyltriethoxysilane (MTES) silica / ?-alumina composite membranes. The permeation and separation of CO pure gas, H2/CO (50/50 vol. %) binary mixture and H2/CH4/CO/CO2 (69/3/2/26 vol. %) quaternary mixture was investigated. The authors developed a membrane process suitable for separating H2 from CO and other reformate gases (CO2 or CH4) that showed a molecular sieving effect. Since the permeance of pure CO on the MTES membrane was very low (CO  » 4.79 – 6.46 x 10-11 mol m-2 s-1 Pa-1), comparatively high hydrogen selectivity could be obtained from the H2/CO mixture (separation factor: 93 – 110). This meant that CO (which shall be eliminated before entering fuel cell) can be separated from hydrogen mixtures using MTES membranes. The permeance of the hydrogen quaternary mixture on MTES membrane was 2.07 – 3.37 x 10-9 mol m-2 s-1 Pa-1 and the separation factor of H2 / (CO + CH4 + CO2) was 2.61 – 10.33 at 323 – 473 K (Figure 14). The permeation and selectivity of hydrogen were increased with temperature because of activation of H2 molecules and unfavourable conditions for CO2 adsorption. Compared to other impurities, CO was most successfully removed from the H2 mixture. The MTES membranes showed great potential for hydrogen separation from reforming gas with high selectivity and high permeance and therefore they have good potential for fuel cell systems and for use in hydrogen stations. According to the authors, the silica membranes are expected to be used for separating hydrogen in reforming environment at high temperatures. Silica membranes prepared by the CVD or sol-gel methods on mesoporous support are effective for selective hydrogen permeation, however it is known that hydrogen-selective silica materials are not thermally stable at high temperatures. Most researchers reported a loss of permeability of silica membranes even 50 % or greater in the first 12 hours on exposure to moisture at high temperature. Much effort has been spent on the improvement of the stability of silica membranes. Gu et al.[24] have investigated a hydrothermally stable and hydrogen-selective membrane composed of silica and alumina prepared on a macroporous alumina support by CVD in an inert atmosphere at high temperature. Before the deposition of the silica-alumina composite multiple graded layers of alumina were coated on the alumina support with three sols of decreasing particle sizes. The resulting supported composite silica-alumina membrane had high permeability for hydrogen (in the order of 10-7 mol m-2 s-1 Pa-1) at 873 K . Significantly the composite membrane exhibited much higher stability to water vapour at the high temperature of 873 K in comparison to pure silica membranes. The introduction of alumina into silica made the silica structure more stable and slowed down the silica disintegration process. As mentioned, silica membranes produced by sol-gel technique or by CVD applied for gas separation, especially for H2 production are quite stable in dry gases and exhibit high separation ratio, but lose the permeability when used in the steamed gases because of sintering or tightening. Thi